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what do trig functions with h mean? i.e sinh(x) | i looked it up and it had something to do with being hyperbolic. but i honestly don't understand what that means. also how do they relate to regular trig functions? can they be interchanged? lastly how do integrals have to do with them and why haven't i learned about this earlier in calc 1? | [if you have a a circle with radius 1 centered on a cartesian plane, you can describe it by x^2 +y^2 =1. if you pick a point on the circle with some angle t separating it from the horizontal, the horizontal distance to that point is cos(t) and the vertical distance is sin(t).](_url_1_) now if instead of a circle you have a hyperbola with x^2 -y^2 =1, which is curvy at the bottom and grows towards a strait lines, [you can describe the x and y points on the hyperbola as cosh(t) and sinh(t).](_url_0_) these functions are defined as cosh(t)= 1/2( e^t + e^-t ) and sinh(t)=1/2( e^t - e^-t ). both of these grow exponentially for large t, but cosh is symmetric and sinh is antisymmetric. if you know calculus, they are each others' derivative. they are related to regular sine and cosine through imaginary arguments, e.g. cosh(x)=cos(ix) where i^2 = -1. | 36 | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain rubies with a cubic crystal pattern? | recently i bought some rough rubies from a source i trust and have bought from several times in the past. most of them were normal and i also got a few nice sapphires along with them. however, when i was going through the stones i noticed something weird. many of the rubies seemed to have a cubic crystal pattern. neat right angles were clearly visible on multiple sides of around a dozen of the stones. they weren't cut but they were too neat to be broken like that. i took them to a geology professor i know and we did a scratch test and found their specific gravity. harder than topaz and the sg matched rubies, but the crystal structure really puzzled him which he was excited about since he's a gia-certified gemologist and he rarely sees a stone he can't identify more or less on sight. aren't rubies normally hexagonal? can anyone tell me how rubies would form naturally with right angles? | of course, one cannot give a definitive answer without acces to the material, but there are a few bits of info which might help to feed the discussion: * are these 90° surfaces crystal faces or are they cleavage faces? * might they perhaps be a parting surface? just for kicks and giggles, it might be worth making a diffractogram from one of those crystals. what i'm wondering is if you are looking at dismembered crystals (lets say through boudinage, for instance) which generated structural orthogonal surfaces overprinted over an otherwise crystal structure which might be hexagonal anyways. i've encountered something somewhat similar to what you describe in apatite crysts years ago and i'm woundering if this might be similar to that? another hypothesis worth considering is that perhaps these might be pseudomorphs of some pre-existing cubic phase. cubic in shape, but hexagonal in crystal lattice - a bit like a mold-infilling. so really - is it cubic or is it pseudo-cubic? would you know the provenance of the material, by any chance? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do timers and cron work in computers? | i've always wondered how timers are actually implemented in computers. e.g. say i put a thread to sleep for 1000ms. my thread blocks but what in the kernel is monitoring the time and waking the thread. my other question is how is cron implemented without chewing up cpu? it seems like it would have to check the time and rules in the crontab at high frequency but it must be smarter than that. | it's all dependent on interrupts from timer hardware. the kernel configures the timer hardware and knows to go look and see what events (such as waking your sleeping process) it may need to do when the timer interrupt handler runs. and there are a couple of different ways timer hardware can be used. one method is as a periodic timer which always triggers at a given rate, like once a millisecond for example. using this method, the kernel checks every millisecond when the interrupt comes in to see if there are any events to trigger. the other method is for the kernel to set the timer to trigger its interrupt the next time a software timer event should occur. so if the 1000ms sleep was the only timer, the hardware would be set to trigger an interrupt in 1000ms. or if the next expiring timer should be in 10ms, the timer hardware would be set to 10ms. from crond's man page, crond's basic operation is to do work once a minute, running any events for that time and checking for modified configuration files. crond doesn't chew up cpu as it spends most of each minute sleeping. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the iodine clock reaction work? | how does it work? | first the iodate ions and iodide ions present in the solution are reduced to molecular iodine (to be soluble in aqueous solution, the molecular iodine is actually complexed with an iodide ion to make the i3- triiodide ion--but i show it here as i2 for clarity): io3-(aq) + 5i-(aq) + 6h3o+(aq) → 3i2(aq) + 9h2o(l) then, the thiosulfate ion reacts with the iodine produced in the first reaction to reduce the iodine formed back to the iodide ion: i2(aq) + 2s2o32-(aq) → 2i-(aq) + s4o62-(aq) the net reaction (showing the relationship between iodate ion, iodine ion, and thiosulfate ion) can be obtained by combining the two reactions above, then balancing: io3-(aq) + 5i-(aq) + 6h3o+(aq) → 3i2(aq) + 9h2o(l) 3i2(aq) + 6s2o32–(aq) → 6i–(aq) + 3s4o62–(aq) _______________________________________________________ io3–aq) + 6s2o32–aq) + 6h3o+(aq) → i–(aq) + 3s4o62–(aq) + 9h2o(i) note the iodine formed (i2), is quickly changed back into the iodide ion. generally speaking, the iodine producing reaction is slower than the thiosulfate reaction. so there can be no buildup of iodine, until the thiosulfate ion is used up. once the thiosulfate ion in the above is consumed, the second reaction is done, so the first reaction can produce molecular iodine. in the presence of starch, the iodine intercalates into the helix structure and produces a dark blue color. thus the "time" is set by the moles of the thiosulfate present. once they are consumed, the clock turns blue. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i just learnt that somalians traditionally consider colustrum to be very unhealthy and avoid it - in what conditions could this be considered to be safest practice? | i'm researching somalian culture before i start language teaching next week and found a document that claims somalis avoid colostrum. (_url_0_) i was under the impression that it was really, really good for babies so i'd love to know where this idea may have stemmed from. are there any environmental issues that could affect a culture's view of colostrum? | its a cultural phenomenon as the only risk comes from external bacteria on the mothers nipple entering the baby[or if the mom has hiv, for example]. its a naturally produce substance from the mother so it will not harm the child, but in fact act to improve the health of the child as it contains vital immunoglobulins, as well as other proteins and nutrients the baby has no produced. "supplementation with animal milks (camel, goat, cow) early in the neonatal period is common." --this is actually more dangerous as it allows for the potential spread of pathogens to the baby, which the baby cannot fight. animal milks in these regions are not pasteurized and a baby has very little immunologic activity during the first few hours of life, so the risk of infection is higher. we do use some forms of bovine colostrum in the us, but this is rigorously tested and unwanted pathogens are removed. | 2 | [] | [
"http://ethnomed.org/culture/somali/somali-cultural-profile"
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how and where is the cmbr measured? | i understand that the cmbr comes from everywhere, but for a survey such as cobe or wmap are they using magnification? are they trying to look for the cmbr at 13.3 light years away? | the universe doesn't really need magnifying. it's quite big already. to detect the cmbr, you need an instrument that detects microwave radiation - essentially a microwave camera. you point it at the sky in one direction, record how much microwave energy is coming from space in that direction, and what its temperature is. then move it a little and see how much is coming from the new direction. repeat until you've covered the whole sky, and you have a map. the light has travelled for 13,800,000,000 years, not 13.3. the universe was only 380,000 years old when this light was emitted. the map can tell you a lot about what the universe was like back then. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain the reaction that makes retrobrite work? | retrobrite is fixing the color on old plastic by soaking it in hydrogen peroxide while it's out in the sun. _url_0_ i'm just curious how this works? | the thing that bleach, hydrogen peroxide, and sunlight have in common is that they tend to rip apart long, interesting molecules. long, interesting molecules such as lycopene, which gives tomatoes and other plants their red color, stop being red if they are chopped up or isomerized (rearranged). another common stain is tobacco tar- this is a witch’s brew of compounds, but a lot of the color comes from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. these absorb uv light and break down into less colorful molecules. as a gross over exaggeration, colorful and interesting molecules are fragile, and the corollary to that is that most molecules are colorless/white. exposing most pigments to powerful oxidizers or uv cooks them into something less colorful. the chunks of the old molecules are still there, but are either too small or shaped incorrectly to absorb specific visible wavelengths. | 8 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qZYbchvSUDY"
] | [] | [
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] |
just how sensitive are the curiosity's organic-compound-detectors? | this question stems from a [discussion](_url_0_) on /r/mars about the possibility of curiosity finding viruses as evidence of past life. is curiosity sensitive enough to find viruses on mars? | msl is more about answering the question how habitable some areas on mars might have been for life in the past than finding dead bacteria or viruses. it is currently investigating areas that look like dry riverbeeds. once we found the most habitable places we might take closer looks there while we might also colonize them. _url_0_ is basically a micrscope. it can focus to 0,013 millimeter per pixel. good enough to see blurry colonies of bacteria. most viruses are much smaller than that. _url_1_ shots lasers at dust and the colors the dust glows with tells you what elements the dust is made of to what percentages. if you find unusually higher concentrations of c, o, n, p and s in the right dosages you quickly get suspicious because organisms from our planet are all about gatherting those elements inside them to use them to make copies. an x-ray spectrometer can do the same. less accurate but it can see trough rocks. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Mars/comments/16hh1b/has_any_onboard_labs_looked_for_viruses_on_mars/c7w80uj"
] | [
"http://msl-scicorner.jpl.nasa.gov/Instruments/MAHLI/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser-induced_breakdown_spectroscopy"
] | [
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what would happen if a person could bend light in a perfect circle? | my dad told me a few times that if a person could bend light in a perfect circle, he would be very rich indeed. i didn't understand then, and i don't understand now. he may have mentioned perpetual energy. | getting light to travel in a circular path isn't anything super exciting and is done routinely. these structures are called [optical ring resonators](_url_2_). no perpetual energy here, but it does have widespread applications in fiber optics. [here's what they look like](_url_0_) [and an animation](_url_4_) and [another](_url_1_) [a lecture on youtube](_url_3_) | 20 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7040/images/nature03569-f2.2.jpg",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KR8u3uu7RpI",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_ring_resonators",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=luPLiOSnyHU",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m4j2y53f1sQ"
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a question about the conductivity of water vs people. | this may sound like a dumb question, but i have to ask. if a person is in a body of water without being able to touch or make a direct connection to ground and electricity is introduced ( lightening, toaster oven, whatever) will that person be electrocuted? would salt or fresh water make a difference? my thought process is that electricity will always try to go to ground and if the water is the most conductive thing there and the person is not grounded they should be fine. how wrong am i? | it depends. if they are in the path(s) that the electricity is taking to get to ground, and there is enough electric current flowing, it will shock or kill them. people are more conductive than fresh water, and similarly conductive to salt water, so they don't get any significant benefit in that respect. keep in mind that electricity doesn't take "the path of least resistance"; that saying is not quite right. electricity takes *all* available paths, but the paths with less resistance get more current. so even if most of the current flow is going nearby, the person is always going to get at least a little. or maybe a lot. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the significance of the derivative of the circumference? | the derivative of the area of a circle is the circumference. when you take the derivative of the circumference with respect to the radius, you get 2pi. does this have to do with how many radians are in a circle or does it have other significance? also we can say the same about the derivative of volume being surface area. does the derivative of surface area have significance? | so a derivative is a rate of change, right? so we take the derivative of circumference with respect to radius, and like you say, we get a constant; 2pi. so we asked, "what is the ratio of an infinitesimal change in circumference to an infinitesimal change in radius?" and our answer is 2pi. the significance of this is that for every unit radius increase, the circumference increases by 2pi units. like you said, 2pi is the number of radians in a circle. so what is a radian? it's a proportionality factor between radius and arc length. if you have an angle of theta radians, the arc length subtended by this angle is theta*r where r is the radius of the circle. so then, if we increase r, how much does the circumfurence, or the arc length of the whole circle increase? dc = 2pi*dr or dc/dr = 2pi. this makes sense, because the whole circle is an arc subtended by 2*pi radians. | 94 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/28d19y/why_is_the_derivative_of_the_volume_of_a_sphere/"
] | [
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how much heat is given off by wires and powerlines? | one side effect of electrical resistance is heat, known as joule heating or resistance heating. this is pretty obvious on an electric stove top, where the heating element is actually an electrical conductor with enough current and resistance to create a lot of heat. but every conductor has at least some resistance (except superconductors), so even a wire must give off a tiny little bit of heat, right? so how many joules are given off as heat might by all the romex in my walls? how about from the big powerlines between my house and the power plant? there must be hundreds of thousands of miles of powerline in the world; how much heat might be given off by the entire world's electrical systems? i know that coaxial cables for television don't actually carry a current, but are they susceptible to resistance heating? how about telephone lines? | if you assume all the wiring in your house is 12-2, and that your house has 4,000 feet of wire, then you have 8,000 total feet of wire (4,000 to outlets and 4,000 back to the main). for this length of wire, you'd see something like 6 ohms resistance. now, we need an estimate of the current running through these wires. i'll assume that the house uses 1,000 kwh per month, so that's an average of 1.4 kw use through the month. for 240 v split phase, this results in an average current of about 5.8 amps, so the resistive losses are going to be in the ballpark of 200 w. (because p = i^2 * r). that figure doesn't include further losses from power cords plugged into each outlet. the actual power loss between a plant and your house will depend on the voltage of the transmission lines and the gauge of wire (and also material, but it's almost always aluminum), as well as the distance the power must travel to get to your house. this has been studied extensively by power companies (since estimating losses is a big part of determining how to save money). in the u.s., transmission and distribution losses were about 6.5% in 2007. for the whole u.s., this results in about 30 gw power loss. this figure represents 6.5% loss of 4,000 twh, the wikipedia figure for u.s. electricity usage in 2010. (or 4.15 x 10^12 kwh total u.s. electrical energy consumption in 2010.) globally, the figure would be around 150 gw, based on estimates that the u.s. uses 20% of the global electricity supply, and assuming the global loss is equal to the u.s. loss. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain how causality could be 'broken' by something like 'effective' ftl? | can someone explain how causality could be 'broken' by something like effective ftl (effective here meaning you reach your location faster than light would, but don't necessarily travel faster than light at any point)? suppose you had a warp drive, and you watched a star explode from close by, then jumped 10 light minutes away and watched the star explode again, ad infinitum, what about you observing an event more than once (at different times clearly) breaks causality? i mean, the event still only happened once, you're just observing the photons travelling away from the event from multiple locations, what the hell has that got to do with causality? add in as many more observers in different locations and travelling/accelerating at different rates as you want, the event itself still doesn't occur more than once. the star still only exploded once, there were events leading up to the star exploding, and those that occurred afterwards (the photons being ejected for example) which also only occurred once, why do all arguments regarding causality breaking always focus on the observation of the event and not the event itself, even though we know that the delay between an event occurring and being observed is simply down to waiting for the photons to arrive at the observer's location? please please please can somebody clear this up for me, it's been on my mind for a while now, and i can't tell if i'm crazy, or whether this is a classic case of my intuition tricking me because the concepts themselves are unintuitive. apologies for my ranty tone, this has really been bugging me. | if you travel faster than light, there is some reference frame in which you arrive *before* you leave on your journey. someone in that reference frame could then send a ftl message to your starting point, which could go backwards through time in the original reference frame. following such a chain, messages could be sent arbitrarily far back in time, and backwards time travel clearly violates causality. sorry i can't explain relativity in a comment, without pictures. if this is confusing i recommend finding a good book or website and learning about it. i developed some good intuition about it from [geometry, relativity, and the fourth dimension](_url_0_), but there are some good more technical sources too. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://books.google.com/books/about/Geometry_Relativity_and_the_Fourth_Dimen.html?id=IsiUudN5pD0C"
] | [
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has there even been a paper with a p-value < 10^-4 or less that was later contradicted by a different study with a larger sample size? | i've seen papers with p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 that were demonstrated as false positives when studies with sample sizes ~100 times larger were conducted. however, i don't remember seeing this happen with papers proclaiming p < 10^-4 findings. | i can't think of a specific example, but it's pretty likely, for two reasons. first, experimental design can be flawed, leading to people being really certain of wrong things happening. second, there are a _lot_ of papers out there. enough that even 10^-4 is likely to pop up once in a while | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does headbanging, dancing, and rapid velocity shifting movements (sports and such), aerobic neck workouts, etc cause brain damage? | i'm wondering if doing neck rotations, head turns, headbanging to music, running in different directions rapidly when playing basketball/soccer/football, and such cause brain damage. any studies on this? | you're basically asking two different questions (even though you didn't necessarily know you were... how exciting). 1.)the first is, "can [the activities you listed] cause a concussion/brain injury?" a concussion occurs when there is a sufficient level of force applied to the brain that causes alterations in normal brain functions. there isn't a single number that can be used to define the force required to produce a concussion, but it's a fairly high g-force load. **is it possible the activities you listed could produce sufficient force to cause a concussion? yes. do they on a regular basis? no.** so the answer to question one is yes, it can, but it would be pretty rare and would require some pretty aggressive circumstances. 2.) the second question is, "do repetitive subconcussive forces applied to the head lead to brain damage?" i anticipate this was the question you were really more interested in, and unfortunately we don't really know. if you've heard in the news about the nfl players and chronic traumatic encephalopathy (cte), this is what they're talking about. we've known for a long time that multiple concussions can cause lasting effects on the brain. what is new is the idea that hitting your head over and over and over, but not doing so hard enough to cause a concussion, might be bad as well. so far, the evidence suggests that doing this repetitively over many many many years, there could be some damage that occurs in the brain. we also think there might be a genetic link to the production of a protein that repairs the brain after these small hits, and that's actually what some of my research focuses on. **the key, however, is that we believe these subconcussive forces must occur with frequency over a long period of time in order to cause problems.** so someone who engages in the activities you listed on a normal basis, and doesn't do so with enough force to cause a concussion, should not experience any brain damage based on the current available research and thinking. hope that helps. | 33 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/12/18/2449866.htm",
"http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=soccer+heading+mri&btnG=&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C11"
] | [
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is there something like an "immediate concentration overflow"? | i'm a math undergraduate, and when i learn mathematics, there are times where i try to "switch a button" inside my head in order to gather and connect much more information at a time. now, this might seem kind of weird, but it actually works. do you remember the first time ever you drank a big cup of coffee or something like that? that's the same feeling. i feel highly alert somehow, and it does seem to make me think much quicker. i cannot tell how i do it exactly though. a necessary condition for it is to move my eyes quickly from one site to another, and it feels like the emotions inside my stomach are flooding my whole body. did you ever see those movies about geniuses and the way the information they connect is visualized? it feels the same for me, but only for a short amount of time. because on the downside, this leads to an enormous amount of stress. yesterday, after trying to do "it" for about half an hour, it took me about several hours to reduce this stress, it felt like i sat a whole day between children who constantly screamed at me. plus, i quickly reach the point where i simply cannot concentrate any longer, it's like all the information given in the book simply hit against a wall in front of my head and all the "magic" disappears. it feels like an "immediate concentration overflow". is there any explanation for what i experience from a scienific point of view? is it just placebo? and what induces the stress to this enormous degree? if you need any further information, feel free to ask. | you may be inducing your adrenaline in order to think as best as you can. doing so burns calories fast and if you're not prepared, you can easily burn out much the same as if you were to sprint for 20 metres versus jog for 100 metres. you are able to focus instantly and get into a zone, but our minds are designed to be able to take in large amounts of information rather than specific information. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens when teleported particles/states collide? | **first a disclaimer:** my understanding for this particular topic in qm is a bit shaky, so there may be a chance that this question comes from my misinterpretation of quantum teleporting. if this is the case i apologize! **my question:** would it be possible to "collide" particles together by teleporting two different systems to the same receiving system at the same time? i guess i'm asking is if it's possible to send two unique quantum states to the same particle. if this is possible would anything interesting happen? or would nothing be transferred at all? | no, because quantum teleportation is not taking a bit of matter and somehow getting it to a remote place. in quantum teleportation, the process is that bob manages to turn a particle in his possession into the state that one of alice's particles previously was in. bob cannot simultaneously turn his particles into two different states, so the issue you raise is moot. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what limits us technologically from being able to shunt blood to/from our circulatory system and effectively perform all necessary functions artificially? such as maintaining o2, co2, glucose, etc concentrations... | obviously completely replacing all organ functions would be extremely complicated, but it seems like some minimal functions could be accomplished in the near future that could keep your brain and spinal column healthy enough to survive indefinitely barring other complications. maintaining the good stuff in necessary concentrations is probably easier than effectively removing all waste products. i imagine in the far future as technology shrunk, your head/spinal column could be the only remaining natural part of your body, and you could remain conscious and functional much like a paraplegic. in the nearer term, how soon could this act as a sort of long-term stasis at a time of imminent death such as some companies attempt to accomplish with freezing heads/bodies for future reanimation? assuming that is accomplished, eventually technology that allowed neuron interfacing for motor control could replace muscles and physical movement and interaction. | a big issue is that blood is sticky and it goops up machines and forms clots that can kill you. this is why bypass has to be done in a finite amount of time. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is surface plasmon resonance? how can it be exploited? | just an explanation of the phenomenon, starting with what a surface plasmon is. my understanding is that it has to do with the "ocean of electrons" that results from metal atoms bonding to each other. because the electrons are in this sort of soup, but repel one another, they tend to aggregate into waves or clusters (the plasmon), and just like standing waves of a string or harmonics in an organ pipe, tend to sort of "fit" in different patters of peaks and troughs (the "resonance"). is this at all accurate? | basically, yes. in metallic solids, the valence electrons can be very simply viewed as a gas of sorts (aka the free electron model). this "free electron gas" can experience collective oscillations (at the surface or in the buik), and can be excited by the appropriate light source to match the oscilliation frequency of the surface plasmon. eta - i used to do spr many moons ago. if you have follow-up questions, just ask. there's the simple explanation of spr and then there is the extremely detailed dissection of the phenomenon and its applications. the latter is best served by me passing along references, as i don't think the equation formatting capabilities in this subreddit is adequate. :) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_enhanced_Raman_spectroscopy"
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] |
how does surface plasmon resonance (spr) work? | i was reading [this _url_1_ article](_url_0_) and it sent me on a long wikipedia walk reading about surface plasmons and related materials. then, after some googling, i found [this video](_url_2_). in the video, it is mentioned that reactions that take place on the ligands result in a shift in the dark spot on the detector. the narrator says that the resonance at the surface is very sensitive to environmental changes, but i don't fully follow. how and why does binding to the ligand cause this shift in angle? how is it connected to to the plasmonic resonance at the material's surface? edit: i realize that my question is more about the application of spr in biochemistry than actually what the phenomena is. | in spr you're hitting the underside of a thin piece of metal with light and measuring the light that is reflected back. do this at a bunch of different angles and you get an spr curve. when you modify the other side of the sensor, through say, binding an enzyme to it, you affect how the light resonants through the sensor which changes the curve. this is similar to how color indicators from acid-base titration a change color because their chemical formula has changed, just on a grander scale. | 3 | [] | [
"http://phys.org/news/2014-04-ersb-nanostructures-applications-infrared-terahertz.html",
"phys.org",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sM-VI3alvAI"
] | [] | [
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what's the obstacle preventing us from making artificial synapses? | a synapse is where one neuron ends, and one or more cells, neurons or not, receive the signal. so far, active prosthetics have been using leftover muscle groups or eeg - i'm not aware of any artificial synapses that connect to a neuron directly. is it a foreign body rejection problem? are the structures just too small to work with? what are the technical challenges that prevent artificial synapses from being a thing? | firstly, where are these presynaptic terminals your thinking of? that is, if you are imagining someone has lost an arm, and you're going to send the output of the cns, you must be imagining that there are some presynaptic terminals just kinda... lying around, waiting for you to "connect" to them? this is not the case. when someone loses a limb, all the neurons that have been cut, die. you would have to go into the spine. so, we crack someone's spine open, and, again, i'm not sure what you're imagining. you know neurons have cell bodies that are 10 microns across, axons less than a micron, and presynaptic terminals around a micron, right? and you know their a literally billions of neurons in the spine. so how do we find which presynaptic terminals to "connect" to. and what surgical technique do we have that allows us to places things with that kind of accuracy? the question is not, "what technical challenges are preventing it", but more "are there any steps in this theoretically intervention that we can perform?" which i think the answer is, "yes, two: we can cut the skin, and get access to the spinal cord". i mean, don't get me wrong, yes, we can record from single neurons. i do it all the time. but in order to "pick out" specific neurons, you generally have to do some kind of genetic alterations, so that specific neurons glow, or respond in certain ways. moreover, recording from single neurons for days/weeks gets very hard and quickly becomes impossible, because your electrodes move relative to the neurons. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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so what's the deal with the climatologist james hansen? he seems to be a controversial character, with many people calling him a "hack," and a "bad scientist." | hansen turns up a lot in climate-change studies and whatnot. he seems to have a lot of research on the subject and is very apocalyptic about it all. a lot of people also dismiss him, saying that he is not a good scientist and exaggerates too much and whatnot. if he's a hack, what exactly has he done that warrants such a label? | he's not a hack. he's one of the most respected climate scientists in the field. he's well published, and has [contributed tremendously to the field](_url_3_). the "hack" claims come from many sides. he's become very outspoken, so much so that his public persona has taken off his research scientist shoes and put on climate activist shoes. he's the one that originally chose 350 ppm co2 as the ideal level for a stable climate, which bill mckibben took and ran with in his climate activism movement [_url_1_](www._url_1_). his outspoken and activist persona makes many people angry. it makes some climate scientists upset because he's now advocating a certain point of view, which is not objective. he's done enough research, has seen the data, and he concluded that we must change quickly for the [sake of our grandchildren](_url_2_). he tells this to anyone who will listen, and tries to tell it to those who won't, and is willing to [get arrested](_url_0_) during protests to get this message across. he makes climate skeptics upset because his claims are bold and scary and he claims to back them up with science. nearly all of his claims *do* come from a scientific background, because it's the field he was trained and has worked in for 30-40 years. however, some of his claims (i.e. the 350 ppm co2 one) are less scientific and more of a stretch. as a result, he's an easy target for climate skeptics/deniers who need a "crazy non-objective climate scientist" to point to and use as a straw man. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-08-29/nasa-s-hansen-arrested-outside-white-house-at-pipeline-protest.html",
"350.org",
"http://www.amazon.com/Storms-My-Grandchildren-Catastrophe-Humanity/dp/1608192008",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hansen#Research_and_publications",
"www.350.org"
] | [
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concerning the neutrino experiment: how exactly does this relate back to the idea of time travel? | i've seen/heard people talk about the possibility of time travel in such a context, but only in layman's terms... "it breaks einstein's laws, which means time travel is possible" sort of statements. does anyone here have the qualification to actually explain the reason in an articulate and reasonably understandable manner? thanks! | none of these comments/answers (whatever you may call them) make any sense, and i would hope someone would revisit this question. the two answers below are based on the idea that faster than light travel equals negative time, when in fact time is still constant. the speed of light does not determine how long a second or hour is, hence why we use time in describing even light's speed. light travels at 299,792,458 m / s. if neutrinos travel slightly faster than that, 300 million meters per second doesn't equal a negative amount of time, it simply means a faster journey than a beam of light sent from the same point. i've also read that due to these new findings it may be possible to send messages back in time. i would like to hear more on the basis of this idea, as the two explanations currently here are complete bullshit. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how rare is it for a death to occur from picking at pimples on the death pyramid? | exactly what the title says. i'm talking about [this](_url_0_). | pretty rare. the "danger" in this area is usually due to the possibility of intense oral infections (periradicular from tooth decay - an abscess), to travel up the veins (since veins can have 2 way transport), into the [cavernous sinus](_url_2_), and cause an infection in your brain. infection -- something similar occurs in the mandibular teeth. an intense infection travels through the [fascial planes of the neck](_url_0_) and hits the 'danger zone' which is basically two fascial planes that travel down into the abdomen and can cause sepsis in the matter of a few hours. this is called [ludwig's angina](_url_1_). a pimple would first need to become infected (rare in itself) then progress to an abscess. for a skin abscess to travel this way would require an immunocompromised patient (like hiv+ or on immunosuppressants). source: dental school education. i could not find anything on pimples progressing to brain abscesses or pimples becoming skin abscesses in general (unless they had a chromosomal abnormality). even the [source listed on wikipedia](_url_3_) that talks about pimples causing a brain abscess is *actually* about a dental infection from an anterior maxillary tooth.... | 10 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danger_triangle_of_the_face"
] | [
"http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/thoracicsurgeryvolii/chapter1figure7.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig's_angina",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavernous_sinus",
"http://www.doctorspiller.com/cavernoussinus.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pterygoid_venous_plexus"
] | [
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how do flood and storm measurements (eg. 25-year flood, 100-year storm, etc) relate to the gambler's fallacy? | the gamblers fallacy simply describes the belief that if, let's say, a 100 year flood happens one year, it is less likely to happen again the next year. flood measurements are based on historic data, and simply estimate the average recurrance time of events on that particular scale. i'm not sure what you mean about 'relate'. the gamblers fallacy is precisely that - it is a false belief applied to random chance situations. at the same time, flood and storm events are not precisely random - they are responses to climate and geography. it is entirely possible to go and modify a catchment to make events more or less likely to happen. and all this is happening with a background climatic change that introduces a range of further unknowns into the equation. on top of the background annual variability. so gamblers fallacy can't be usefully talked about, because weather is not random. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is this mystery "mold" that has appeared in my yard? | this mold (or whatever) is growing on a small (2 foot) japanese maple we have on our back deck. [close-up pic.](_url_2_) [bit zoomed out.](_url_1_) [further out.](_url_0_) i haven't seen it prior to this year. i've actually seen it elsewhere around the yard as well, and again, don't think i've seen it before this year, at least not enough for me to notice. vancouver bc area. it hasn't been a particularly rainy winter -- in fact, december was very dry -- but "not particularly rainy" in the pacific northwest means that we haven't quite grown gills yet. what is this mold? is it harmful to the tree or anything else? do i need to do something to deal with it? the tree seems otherwise healthy except for many patches of this stuff. this is a closeup of a single patch -- the little polyps seen there are tiny, tip-of-a-ballpoint-pen size. | this appears to be one of the *ochrolechia* lichens, although i could be wrong. check out the photos at [e-flora bc](_url_0_), though, and see what you think. in any case, it's definitely a lichen, and harmless to your tree. you must have had just the right weather conditions for it to grow all over the place this year. nothing to worry about! | 5 | [] | [
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what is the chemistry behind "snapz?" | as a child, i was able to purchase the "snapz" which, for those who are unaware, seemingly resemble gravel wrapped in tissue paper that produces an audible "pop" and smoke upon impact with a hard surface. i would like to know the chemistry behind this marvel i enjoyed as a child. thanks for the help redditors. | these look like gravel (or sand) wrapped in tissue paper, because that's what they mostly are. but theres a small amount of a compound called silver fulminate dried in with it. the fulminate salts are invariably shock-sensitive. there's a lot of energy stacked up in its bonds, and a very low barrier to its decomposition to gaseous products (like dinitrogen itself). the metal fulminates are extremely hazardous primary explosives, but the amount in each one of the "snaps" is very small, around a tenth of a milligram or less. that's enough to produce the noise, but very little else. the people who make these things have to be sure to keep everything in dilute solution. you soak the gravel or sand in that and let it dry. handling dry fulminates in pure form is a recipe for disaster. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bang_snaps",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_fulminate"
] | [
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is there such a thing as a perfect hermetic seal and/or a material which is completely impermeable? if not, is such a thing even theoretically possible? | basically, what i am asking is if there is anything which can perfectly contain fluids, in particular hydrogen and helium, without any leakage. as i understand it, even metal flasks have trouble with this, due to the hydrogen seaping through. moreover, this seems to especially be a problem with helium since it is monoatomic unllike the diatomic hydrogen, coupled with how inert it is. edit: as i suspected, the answer is no. that being said, what is the closest we can get to "perfect?" | "perfect" is a tricky word. no container is going to give you zero losses over an indefinite period of time (if nothing else your container will eventually evaporate). as a practical matter, you have to define acceptable losses per unit time. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how the hell do cicada nymphs count to 17? | there's a large brood of 17-year cicadas emerging in my hometown right now (i know that 13-year periodical cicadas exist too). i have a reasonable understanding of the life cycle, but have never read anything about what on earth the mechanism is by which the cicada "counts" (as count it must) the passing of years. my understanding is that they're underground locked onto tree roots, feeding on xylem, so i suppose they could either be counting temperature changes--not sure that'd work well if they're more than a foot or two deep in many areas--or xylem flows, since there's huge seasonal variation there. do we know if they're counting either of those, or something different? and on top of that, the cicada's nervous system must contain what i think we can refer to, just in computational terms, as *memory*, that lasts an enormously long time for an insect and seems to be able to store integers. how on earth does that neurological counting device work? | read: how 17 year cicadas keep track of time richard karban, carrie a. black and steven a. weinbaum ecology letters, (2000) q : 253±256 _url_0_ and emergence of prime numbers as the result of evolutionary strategy paulo r. a. campos, viviane m. de oliveira, ronaldo giro, and douglas s. galva ̃o _url_1_ | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2000.00164.x/abstract",
"http://www.cicadamania.com/downloads/prime-PRL.pdf"
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psychology question | (i'd put the actual question in the title if i it'd actually fit) i heard somewhere that it makes it easy to focus on work if you do working/studying stuff in one spot, and leisure activities in a separate spot. it's one of those things that "everyone knows", but correct me if i'm wrong on that. would the above apply if instead of having separate areas, you just had a single area, and you used a differently-coloured light for each situation? ie, while messing around you have the area bathed in an orange light (as a primary light source), but while working, you have a blue light, thus making the atmosphere of the place seem generally different. if not, what makes the distinction between the two spots? i'm guessing it has to do with association of the area with a certain type of action, and that it would work with the different lighting, but i'm not sure. | your mind natively makes connections between things. it's part of what let's us learn and adapt and be successful as a species. if you do the same things in the same places, over and over, then your mind begins to "jump" to those modes that you do in those places. so if you only sleep and have sex in bed, your mind will drop you knot sleep mode and/or horny mode when you climb into bed. if you study at your desk, and do nothing else there, then your brain will jump to study mode. the more you can make the associations "clear" (by differentiating one from the other) the better it works. so if you can't change any other factors, changing a light would help. but every other change you can add to the situation will help, so turning on or off the radio or tv would help, or sitting up straighter, or putting on your reading glasses... whatever factors you can think of. it's important to realize, particularly for studying, that recall has a lot to do with environmental factors matching too. so you want to study in a situation as analogous to your classroom as possible, for the best possible recall. as another aside, this is sometimes suggested as to why boys have more problems in school. boys generally need more stimulus than girls, so a boy trying to study quietly at home will get bored... turn on a radio and he'll study better, but then he goes to school to take the test and the silence is so different it's distracting and he can't remember what he studied. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can some one explain synaptic pruning to me? | i've gone to other places to look for answers but none of it is making much sense. | not sure how much detail you want, but briefly, we start out with tons of connections in between neurons at birth, which arise through neurogenesis. then what happens is the connections start "dying off." if connection a, for example, is used a ton, but connection b is used rarely, connection a gets stronger and connection b gets weaker. an easy way to remember it is that we use it or lose it. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what do the presenters of this video mean when they talk about the suspended silicon ball acting like a quantum object? | _url_0_ i don't quite understand how what they showed is a representation of the double slit experiment, i just see the particles behaving as particles while the waves being made by the bouncing drops behave like waves. | this video is pure (though entertaining) fluff until the last 15 seconds or so, let's quote: and that's all you need to know. the *reason* they were saying that some of the properties were similar is because you have localized waves which can interfere or diffract like a quantum object would. it's a toy model, but an interesting (though completely classical) one nonetheless. | 6 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sGCtMKthRh4"
] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSeLufEdng4"
] | [
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what is the hard evidence for the economic benefits of science? (more detail in comments) | i am aware of the example of the space race, and that every dollar spent on it gave 7 dollars in return (paraphrasing). but have there been any articles or research papers quantifying that science = economic prosperity. i can find plenty of editorials and opinions but no facts. anything would be great as it is an area that utterly fascinates me, as it seems common sense yet there is scant evidence when (i am) looking. | sometimes companies do a cost benefit analysis for the direction and funding of their r & d department. for instance natural products chemistry was a a division of every major pharmaceutical company until the 90s. at that point they realized that they could try to synthesize compounds to target specific active sites instead of collecting compounds and seeing which ones have biological activity. there are still millions of unknown compounds out there and it would be beneficial to continue exploring and cataloging them, but currently it is not considered profitable. although, a very small contingent of natural products chemists work at start-ups and companies making natural cosmetic products. there are examples like this where the cost benefit ratio is no good at least in the short term. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how could i "timestamp" a physical letter such that later on i can prove it was created at a certain date? | i've heard of carbon dating, but that's for longer periods of time. is there a way to create something physical that can later be tested to give an exact date? example: i write a letter that outlines my method of extracting an amazing source of power. however, i don't want it to be used as a bomb. i write down my notes and hide it in my house. 40 years later someone else comes up with the idea. i want to be able to pull out my letter and prove that i created it first, on november 14th, 40 years ago. edit: is this a physics question? i couldn't decide where it belonged so i figured physics was an all-encompassing choice. | send it to yourself via regular post. the postmark will indicate the date. note that this will not protect your idea though. patents rights are granted on a first to file basis, rather than first to invent. the only way to invalidate a competitor's patent is to prove that the information was in the public domain prior to their application, which a sealed letter doesn't do. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://proofofexistence.com/"
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why don't we know everything, just by looking at the fundamental laws? | thanks for reading my question :) i've always wondered why we can't just make a computer simulation which strictly follows the most basic laws of physics and from there tell everything. why is it necessary to derive special-case laws? take electromagnetism for example: as far as i've been told at my uni-course, the four maxwell equations basically tell us everything we need to know. so how come there is still need for research? another example would be aerodynamics of objects approaching supersonic speeds. i mean we know the most fundamental rules to which airmolecules must abide, so how is this still not a solved problem? the examples i came up with aren't perfect, but i don't know how to describe my question otherwise. i hope you can get the gist of it :) | because it would be extremely costly computer simulations, and we might not even have algorithms that work well enough to do all we want to do. for example, going from atoms to macroscopic systems is incredibly hard. even with an approximate description of the forces between molecules, you would need to describe systems of several moles of atoms. simulating 1g of air for example, would require simulating around 10^22 atoms. for each of them, you would require to store in the memory of your computer 6 numbers (position and velocity), which means you would need enough ram to store the entirety the [digital data stored in the world in 2009](_url_0_). this already is neglecting internal molecular dynamics. simulating how electrons in a molecule interact is active research and simulating a single complex molecule already requires supercomputers. this even, is still neglecting how neutrons and protons and nuclei interact. for this, it even more relies on approximations as their interactions come from the interactions of their internal quarks and gluons, which is incredibly complicated - even theoretically: we know how to write down the basic equation that we are pretty sure predicts all of this, but we don't have all the techniques ironed out for how we would extract predictions even for describing the interaction between one proton and one neutron. at the moment, we have very good descriptions of a single proton from simulations based on these equations, but these also require long runs on supercomputer and a lot of theoretical developments to figure out how to do the simulations. all in all, we're very far from being able to run the fundamental equations of the universe on a supercomputer and just "figure out everything from there". what we can do however, is take these equations and figure out special cases to find approximate behaviors - using equations not simulations - and then simulate these special cases. you can show that an approximate description of internal molecular dynamics reduces to simpler force models between molecule, and that you can explain the basic properties of fluids from these forces. each time, taking the approximate description and working on them is a better choice. not only for obtaining predictions, but also but also for *understanding* what is going on. a simulation tells you if your model fits reality, but it can be hard to understand what is really going on inside: what are the elementary mechanisms? are some things more important than others? making approximate descriptions tells you this kind of information: if you neglect some effects and still describe reality correctly in some regime, you *understood* what is going on: it's what you did not neglect that drives the phenomenon you are describing. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(data)"
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help me solve the mystery of the melting mason? | [removed] | i don't think it is possible. as anyone who has had more than one "mason" style jar in the kitchen, they seem to attract unlike-jars. so even if you think that you got all your jars at the same time, you indeed have three or four different sizes, two different brands, and one store-brand pickle jar that just happens to fit the same lid. from the first photo, it appears that the "melted" jar is a totally different shape, especially if you look at the base and "shoulder" of the jar. it's narrower at the bottom, less cylindrical than the jar to its right. i don't think anything weird is going on here. it's just a square jar that wasn't noticed during the canning process. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would geomagnetic reversal mean for modern society as we know it? | if geomagnetic reversal were to occur what would happen? what would it affect and what would the effects be? if damage were to occur what would it take to fix it? | a geomagnetic reversal is a very slow event, typically taking over a millennium to occur. there would be some required sorting out of things related to compasses and direction-finding, but we would have hundreds, thousands, or even tens of thousands of years to figure these things out. the effects would be minimal. _url_1_ _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/vwgwe/how_much_damage_would_a_sudden_reversal_of_the/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/on96z/consequences_of_geomagnetic_reversal/"
] | [
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if you die while intoxicated, does your bal stay the same (since it's not being metabolized anymore)? | just watched a video of a guy live streaming while driving extremely drunk. wondered if he died, would you want to get a blood sample immediately, or could it wait until he gets to the morgue. | death while intoxicated is a complicated thing. according to [this](_url_0_), blood alcohol concentration (bac) after death may increase due to fermentation processes from microorganisms or from the continued diffusion of residual alcohol in the stomach. [this](_url_1_) is a powerpoint from an me in canada that shows bac concentration can vary depending on location that the sample was obtained from (as well as other drugs). with this, obtaining samples of blood immediately after death would definitely help with interpretation, but from what i can gather, there are multiple variables that can apply. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16782292",
"http://www.cal-tox.org/Downloads/proceedings/0503/catsatmay2003_fri_jones.pdf"
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following from the 700tb stored in a gram discovery, how long would it take to actually sequence that out. | didn't say in the [article](_url_0_), but what would the theoretical read-speed be on that (to sequence it all out) i'm no scientist but if i remember freshmen bio, sequencing takes a very long time, and i thought a gram of dna is a lot. | yes a gram of dna is a lot. when you sequence dna you're usually starting with less than 1 ug (microgram), so less than 1 millionth of a gram. 700 terabytes = 5600 terabits, so that's 5600 terabases of dna. the highest throughput dna sequencing machine is, i'm pretty sure, the [illumina hiseq 2000/2500](_url_1_) which can sequence 0.6 terabases in 11 days (plus prep time i think). so if you had one machine it'd take ~~25~~ 280* years to sequence all of it. plus analysis time. the [beijing genomics institute](_url_0_) which is the largest sequencing facility in the world has over 100 of these sequencers. they could finish this sequencing in ~~a few months~~ about 2 years*. as a comparison, the human genome has 3 billion base pairs (3 gigabases or 0.003 terabases), so with one machine you could sequence 200 genomes in 11 days. note that, when you sequence a genome, you don't just sequence it once, because there are errors. you want every site sequenced a few times. so if you have a depth of coverage is 5, you could actually sequence only 40 genomes on one machine in 11 days. (disclaimer: i hope i got my numbers and decimals places correct.) [edited to add more info] *i forgot to factor in that each run is 11 days not 1: 5600 tb / 0.6 tb per run = 9333 runs, 9333 * (11 days/run) / (365 days/year) = 281 years. | 10 | [] | [
"http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/134672-harvard-cracks-dna-storage-crams-700-terabytes-of-data-into-a-single-gram"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing_Genomics_Institute",
"http://www.illumina.com/systems/hiseq_systems.ilmn",
"http://professional.wsj.com/article/SB10000872396390444233104577593291643488120.html",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2012/08/15/science.1226355.DC1/Church.SM.pdf"
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deformation of a copper brick | imagine a brick made out of solid copper. the brick would, really, be made out of copper atoms, with nuclei being repelled from each other and electrons roaming randomly. now, look at the very edge of the brick. the copper nuclei at the very edge are being repelled by nuclei further into the brick, but are not being repelled back into the brick by any means (apart from air, but air is not as strong as copper). so, technically, the brick should slowly deform due to the edge's atoms being repelled away, but this doesn't happen. why does it not happen? | hmm.... well, if you look at this idealized brick, you will often find that the surface atoms do in fact rearrange themselves so that they are arranged differently than those in the bulk. this is called a surface reconstruction. the atoms near the surface will also slightly deform to accommodate these changes. does this help? | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does delaying gratification on purpose have any measurable effects on a person? | i'm curious if there has been any research related to the effects of purposely delaying gratification for an extended period of time. all of my searching has found plenty of research on the correlations between the ability to delay gratification and other factors such as self control, academic success, likelihood to use drugs, etc. instead, what i am asking is if a person were to purposely set out to delay their own impulsive behaviors, or have them delayed on purpose by someone else (an example: waiting five minutes to drink alcohol once the urge is first noticed) does this have any measurable effect (on anything, be it personality, etc.) thanks. | you are right, the vast majority of studies look at the differences/long term effects of people who can delay gratification vs. those who can't, and generally assessing a person's self-control. studies which show what effect, if any, training a person to delay gratification may have seem to be more rare. *cognitive-behavioral self-control therapy for children: a components analysis* by kendall (1982) employed cognitive behavioral training strategies for children to reduce disruptive classsroom behaviors, and showed that 10 weeks out there was improvement, but it wasn't necessarily maintained a year later. another study, *attitude and behavior change of correctional clientele: a three year follow-up*, by wormith (1984) did a similar experiment with prisoners. the study showed that in the short term, their behavior in the prison improved, but there was no long term impact on recidivism. based on this, it appears that self-control training works in the short term, but is questionable for long term results. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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concerning the "first world problem" meme, how can it be -173c at night on mercury and only 0c where i live at night? | as the title suggests, i was curious how it can be so cold on a planet so close to the sun. is it the lack of atmosphere? anyways, any explanation would be greatly appreciated! | it's a combination of the lack of atmosphere and the fact that [mercury's night is almost 30 earth days long](_url_0_); that gives it a lot of time to cool off after the hot day. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.google.com/search?q=length+of+day+mercury"
] | [
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why is the uniformity of the cmb seen as an anomaly? | i've read that one of the reasons we think inflation happened is because of the uniformity of the cosmic microwave backround. the idea (i think) is that unless everything had time to 'mix' and become the same temperature we would see larger fluctuations in the cmb. an example of this is here, _url_0_ , where they use an analogy of mixing cups of hot and cold tea. the wikipedia entry on the cmb also suggests that its uniformity is support for inflation. the explanations above seem to be operating under the assumption that there should be larger variations in the cmb, and inflation/whatever can be used to explain why there isn't. i don't understand why the uniformity of the cmb couldn't just be 'how it is'. we're ok with the idea that the entire observable universe was once the size of an apple. and we're ok with the idea that everything, everywhere used to be so hot that protons couldn't even form. we just accept those. but the idea that everything was also the same temperature is seen as an anomaly that needs to be explained... i don't get why that is. | i will say that there's other support for inflation but one of the main rationales is that inflation solves many [problems](_url_2_) of ["fine tuning"](_url_1_) of the initial conditions of the universe. the [flatness problem](_url_0_) is an even better example of fine tuning so i'll go with that. the overall structure of spacetime can be curved, like a ball or a saddle or just flat, and we measure it to be flat. really flat. if you work out how that must be from equations governing the expansion and curvature of spacetime through cosmologic history, you work out that it had to start out within about 1 part in 10^62 of flat at the start, which also implies that our universe has precisely enough energy density to be flat, not more, not less (to within that error). why does it have to be this number? our universe just happens to have that much matter and radiation and other stuff in it to within that amount? we have a problem with that because of the exact amount of fine tuning that went into those initial conditions that made the universe. so yes, you're right, maybe it could have been that way to start. however, inflation allows you to have many more arbitrary values and then still get to the level of flatness we see today. so it removes those problems of fine tuning altogether, and the same is true on the other problems inflation solves, including the one you initially brought up. as for the things we're okay with that you mention in your last paragraph, there's strong observational support that explains how the universe must have expanded, the temperature of the universe as a function of time, what physical processes must have occurred at different times, etc. we don't just accept those. we've observed a large body of evidence and produced a model that fits those observations. we don't just accept inflation. it solves a lot of problems but it's not clear that it's correct. observations of primordial gravitational waves, like the ones bicep2 incorrectly claimed to detect 2.5 years ago, would yield really strong evidence for inflation. edit: fixed link formatting | 6 | [] | [
"http://cosmictimes.gsfc.nasa.gov/online_edition/1993Cosmic/inflation.html"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatness_problem#Current_value_of_.CE.A9",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-tuning",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology\\)#Motivations"
] | [
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how does something like this form naturally? | _url_0_ it just seems like such a major coincidence. how does such a huge boulder come to rest on a spot like that and stay balanced? | in addition to what esbenab said, think about this: there are many *many* more boulders that did not manage to come to rest like this one (and just fell off making two side by side boulders), but we don't really take that into consideration when we think about how this one could have possibly settled down this way. it's sort of like [confirmation bias](_url_0_). the same thing happens when a streetlight goes out while you're walking under it: we think that it's an amazing coincidence, but we don't take into account how many streetlights *didn't* turn off while we walked under them. statistically, major coincidences happen. | 16 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/8N7vk"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias"
] | [
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] |
a physics puzzle | on the floor of an elevator/lift are a blob of mercury and a lit candle in a holder. the cable snaps. what happens? (assuming the the lift shaft to be very long or infinite.) | blob of mercury: the blob of mercury will, to minimize surface energy, become a sphere. the motion from changing shape will impart momentum to the sphere, and it will drift upwards from the floor. candle: the flame will die. since the air is accelerating with the candle, convection cannot occur (wherein hot, oxygen-depleted air rises and is replaced by cold, oxygen-rich air to feed the flame). | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what stopped the black plaque? (x-post from /r/askhistorians) | we've all learned about the black plague in high school, but no one ever taught us what stopped it or why it stopped, just that it happened. anyone know this? -- /u/mrsocialclub i found this an interesting question; i would love to know more too :p | pandemics typically evolve to be less virulent because they kill their hosts too quickly. this article tells it for the layman and contains links to the original research. _url_0_ | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.forbes.com/sites/stevensalzberg/2011/09/02/the-black-death-is-dead-thanks-to-evolution/"
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would a d.c supply and an a.c supply of the same quoted value supply the same power to a given resistor? | [deleted] | depends on how the value is quoted. if the value is rms voltage, then yes (long-term average), since the power dissipated in the resistor is proportional to v^2 . if it's peak voltage, then no. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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from an evolutionary standpoint, what's in store for humans in the distant future? | if you think about the mechanism behind evolution, traits that lead to more offspring will be more prevalent in future generations. while these traits used to be survival focused, in modern time it has been largely social, and dependent on a huge variety of factors. medical science, sociology, economics, and technology are all drastically changing the way people live their lives and reproduce. it is impossible to tell in what direction humanity is heading, but survival of the fittest (in the literal sense) is not driving evolution as it was in past millenia. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
which nerve supplies the diaphragm with autonomic innervation ? | phrenic nerve (c3-c5) supplies the diphragm with somatic innervation, where does autonomic innervation come from? and where does the preganglionic nerve and the postganglionic synapse ? | diaphragm is a skeletal muscle, so it is not supplied with autonomic innervation. breathing is an antonomous process that can be hijacked by higher nervous centers, but all signals come only via phrenic nerve. in the brainstem there is a respiratory center which controls the automatic ventilation. it is dependent on blood co2 levels, so every increase in co2 triggers inspiration. rate and depth of breathing is regulated by blood gases, ph, emotions etc. and it is closely associated to autonomous nervous system. however no noradrenaline/acetylcholine take part, afaik. you can overcome this by hyperventilating which decreases your blood co2, and then holding your breath. this can make you pass out because o2 in your blood is used up before co2 rises to a value that make you inspirate. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i think there may be an endangered crayfish species living in my neighborhood creek - what should i do? how do i get my son involved? | my son has spent a lot of time at our neighborhood creek over the last 5 years, and knows it like the back of his hand. the hubby was poking around on the internet and found out that there is an [endangered crayfish](_url_0_) that lives in the general area of our house. from the best we can tell (without removing the crayfish from the creek directly), the pictures we've found match the crayfish my son has grown to know. we're not experts in species identification, however, and although i work at a university, i don't know many field biologists who could help. the question now is, who do we tell on a local/regional/national level? how do we get confirmation that this is an endangered species? we would like to get our son involved in some citizen science-types of things related to these crayfish and the creek, but we're not sure where to start. any ideas? | your university probably has graduate students who would love to find an endangered specie in the backyard. biology and environmental science departments would be the right place to start. your state or province environmental agency may be able to help. as far as involving your son, the science department at his school would probably love to see this as a science project the next time a science fair comes up. also, youth organizations he is involved in (scouts, etc?) might be a good lead. good luck, sounds really interesting. | 7 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orconectes_shoupi"
] | [] | [
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is it possible to "overstretch" before exercising? | sometimes i feel less strong when i do a thorough, deep 10 minute stretch before lifting weights. i feel more strong when i warm up and get my blood flowing with some cardio then do a quick 30 second stretch before using a muscle group. should you be as limber as possible before lifting weights or can this cause injury when your joints/muscles are "too loose"? | we've had lots of safety meetings about stretching before work to reduce strains/sprains. we've had guys actually come in and teach us how to do it properly because for every injury the comp rate increases thus making it harder for the company to get jobs they bid. through everything they taught us, it was don't stretch so much it hurts. stretch to a comfortable amount and hold it, you're only hurting yourself if you pull to hard on the muscles. they aren't going to stretch out that far in one session. continue everyday to increase your flexibility. i think a long comfortable stretch is best, quick 30 second stretch is better than nothing. i would also like to know how long is sufficient, and if that time threshold is crossed if any negative effects take place. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the stanford cooling glove: so what's the rub? | i've seen articles about [this apparatus](_url_0_) that helps you exercise by cooling your core much quicker. it sounds to good to be true, but i haven't heard the rub. do people over do it? is it too expensive? why the heck isn't this thing in every gym in america by now? | well, this was discussed in /r/skeptic some time ago but the conversation there is naturally less scientifically rigorous. sadly i did not save the thread. regardless, the issues tend to clump around two essential questions. for one we have: does rapidly cooling the body actually have significant effects on recovery time? here we were somewhat stymied as no one jumped in with actual studies on the matter. it was granted that icing injuries can reduce swelling and this might be beneficial to recovery but no one had a plausible mechanism for actual increased speed of muscular repair and especially for the effects of cooling core temperature. perhaps someone here can speak with more authority on the matter. the second issue though is that even if we were to grant that rapid core cooling were of benefit (something not granted of course but worth exploration) we would ask: why would this mechanism be the preferred delivery? if cooling the hands acts to rapidly cool the core, surely cooling the hands and also other parts of the body would be equally good or better. full immersion or a simple cold shower would seem to be better candidates and if the effects are as dramatic as claimed then the additional effort would be worthwhile. i'd be interested to re-examine the topic(s) though if anyone who actually knows more about the science would care to chime in here. | 2 | [] | [
"http://news.stanford.edu/news/2012/august/cooling-glove-research-082912.html"
] | [] | [
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what is air resistance and why does it affect materials like it does? | so i was thinking about water and the strength of its polar bond like any normal person would on a relaxing evening... ...when i considered that water, when dropped from a height, more or less turns into a mist. that is, the air resistance is overcoming the strength of water's strong attraction to itself and breaking it up. i understand that air is not "nothing" like a vacuum, but it strikes me as odd that the nitrogen/oxygen mix of our air alone (if that is indeed causing the "friction" or whatever it is that air resistance *is*), is enough to overcome water's strong attraction to itself. so... why does this happen, askscience? | the specific phenomenon you are referring to - water breaking up into droplets - is due to the surface tension of the water and in fluid mechanics is called the [plateau-rayleigh instability](_url_0_) (youtube video [here](_url_1_) as well). basically what happens is that due to surface tension, the water wants to minimize it's surface area. for a droplet, this means it forms a sphere, since a sphere has the smallest possible surface area for a given volume. however as water falls from a faucet it is in a column (i.e. a continuous cylinder shape) and so the water eventually breaks up into separate droplets which overall have a smaller total surface area than the falling column of water. however that's just a qualitative description of what happens. the actual analysis of the plateau-rayleigh instability allows you to quantitatively predict (with very high accuracy) what the actual frequency and size of the droplets will be, and how long it takes for them to form. this isn't unique to water either. it will happen to any liquid, although the final result depends upon such things as the initial diameter and flow rate of the column of liquid, and the surface tension of the liquid. in more general terms, if liquids always try to minimize their surface area, you would expect that when you, say for instance, drop a bucket of water into the air that it would stay together in a spherical shape. however when the mass of liquid becomes large compared to strength of the surface tension, surface tension simply isn't strong enough to bring it all together and other forces (such as air resistance) tend to push the mass of liquid apart into sheets and columns. as the liquid spreads out and gets thin enough, the total surface area will become large enough that the total surface tension will be less if it breaks into separate droplets, and so it does so *a la* the plateau-rayleigh instability. then these droplets, now separated, then fall independently. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plateau%E2%80%93Rayleigh_instability",
"http://youtu.be/ml4KEy4N0gc"
] | [
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few questions about this space walk photograph. | _url_0_ this was on the front page earlier and i have a few questions about it. is it possible to calculate how fast the astronaut would be orbiting the earth? also how does he stay close to the shuttle so that he can return safely, i.e is he orbiting at the same speed and can therefore stay next to it? and finally if his propulsion system failed, would he eventually re-enter the atmosphere and presumably die? | the velocity needed to remain in orbit is equal to the square root of newton's constant times the mass of earth divided by the distance from the center of the earth. i don't know the altitude of that specific mission, but they're usually around 300 km. that means he's going 7-8 km/s. in space there are no other forces acting on either the shuttle or the guy, so they stay in the same position relative to each other. if he were to become unable to return to the ship, he would presumably run out of oxygen, or slowly fall into the atmosphere and burn up. | 6 | [] | [
"http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/1201/freeflyer_nasa_3000.jpg"
] | [] | [
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captain planet question here: earth vs water vs wind vs fire -- which wins? | i hope i ask this question as sensibly as possible, but it was the old cartoon that spawned my curiosity. in a battle of the most solid matter, vs a massive amount of water, vs the hottest flames (or gases?), vs the strongest wind, which is the most powerful? additionally, please give the most upvotes to the person who comes up with the best "heart" joke, as that was the most laughable part of the entire show. | fire can't exist without wind. water is ice in space without earth. wind, overtime, erodes earth. fire turns water into vapor. wind can cause waves with water, but you need earth with sufficient gravitational pull to have water that can be affected by wind. basically, they all need each other as captain planet taught. you need heart to ask a question as cute as this. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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video lectures/books/tutorials for learning basic physics | at last thought of learning physics again after i left school 5 years. the urge is due to the fact that i still couldn't get the science behind the stuff like pressure, light... though i know the theory, but couldn't relate to it in practical aspects. as a compsci grad, i badly need greater understanding of physics. someone here could help me with links to some good video lectures, books, articles... | the [khan academy](_url_5_) is an excellent resource for introductory material. if you've got a fairly solid understanding of basic calculus, you might also like leonard susskind's modern physics series, which is a six-quarter survey sequence: 1. [classical mechanics](_url_7_) 2. [quantum mechanics](_url_8_) 3. [special relativity](_url_6_) 4. [general relativity](_url_0_) 5. [cosmology](_url_3_) 6. [statistical mechanics](_url_10_) he also has a two-quarter series on particle physics: [basic concepts](_url_11_) and [the standard model](_url_4_). mit offers a lot of resources, including video lectures and lecture notes, for their physics courses, ranging from introductory undergraduate courses through graduate level material. you can find that information [here](_url_2_). you might also check out [the assayer](_url_1_), which compiles links to free online resources (mostly lecture notes and textbooks) in various subjects (the link goes to the physics section, but there's a *lot* more on the page). finally, gerard ′t hooft has an excellent guide to learning theoretical physics, with links to free online textbooks and lecture notes in each category. that can be found [here](_url_9_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cosmolearning.com/courses/modern-physics-general-relativity/",
"http://www.theassayer.org/cgi-bin/asbrowsesubject.cgi?class=Q#freeclassQC",
"http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/",
"http://www.cosmolearning.com/courses/modern-physics-cosmology/",
"http://www.cosmolearning.com/courses/particle-physics-the-standard-model-416/",
"http://www.khanacademy.org/#physics",
"http://www.cosmolearning.com/courses/modern-physics-special-relativity/",
"http://www.cosmolearning.com/courses/modern-physics-classical-mechanics/",
"http://www.cosmolearning.com/courses/modern-physics-quantum-mechanics/",
"http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~hooft101/theorist.html",
"http://www.cosmolearning.com/courses/modern-physics-statistical-mechanics/",
"http://www.cosmolearning.com/courses/particle-physics-basic-concepts-415/"
] | [
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high school level physics experiments | i love doing physics experiments at home, but there aren't many good ones on the internet. so, what are some high school level physics experiments you can do at home? | crawford's book *waves* (volume 3 of the berkeley series), while a college text, has a whole collection of "home experiments" throughout it. i can't recall how much they depend on your having gone through the material in his book, and how much they'd just be interesting to do anyway, but it's definitely worth a look. | 3 | [] | [] | [
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which came first, the receptor or the ligand? | from what i understand, ligands exert their physiological effects typically through receptors, proteins made up of hundreds of amino acids. how could, say, serotonin, act on tissues if the tissue has no receptors for serotonin? what would be the selective pressure to keep serotonin around even though it has no receptors? | ooh, a fun twist on the chicken/egg riddle (to which there is a correct answer, btw)! short answer: no one knows for sure, but probably the receptor. longer answer: multi-part molecular machines are a defining feature of metazoan biology. it has always been hard, however, to rationalize how any individual part of a machine could evolve in the absence of the other parts. but to imagine that they could not evolve would be to fall into the "irreducibly complex trap". evolution is step-wise, and this is important to keep in mind. i know more about this topic in the context of nuclear receptors, so i will use them as an example, but the thought process can be generalized to most ligand/receptor families. the predominant theory is that the first "nucelar receptor" was likely a dna binding protein that had acquired a new domain/mutation that allowed it to interact with things. that is, essentially evolution created an orphan nuclear receptor. this new "ligand binding domain" likely wasn't very specific at first, and bound to a large class of molecules. the evolutionary magic started to happen once chance interactions between molecule and receptor were enough to influence cell signaling. the first cells that learned tricks for integrating information about their environment into how dna was regulated were enormously advantaged, and thus nuclear receptors became selected for. subsequent gene duplications allowed for the divergence of the multiple nuclear receptor gene/ligand pairs we can observe today. so while the small molecules were always floating around, they were never truly 'ligands' until evolution began to spit out these messed up proteins that 'bound things' in addition to their other tasks. so it might seem semantic, but receptors came first. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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quality of journal physics letters | to physicists on reddit, or anybody who has critically read or submitted articles published in the series of journals physic letters x. what is your experience and how would you describe the quality and rigor of the published work? thanks for your input! | i've only read it. no strong opinion really. afaik, it's just another second or third-tier journal. which isn't really a judgment on the quality or reliability of the results published as much as it's about their overall significance. i think most scientists would agree that the particular journal doesn't really affect their judgment so much on how much they trust a particular result, at least not when it comes to things in their own fields where they're competent to form their own opinion. even the top journals publish dubious stuff occasionally. in fact, i'd say the _very_ top journals are a bit _more_ prone to publishing dubious stuff, as they're very into sensational results. it's a bit like comparing the _ny times_ to your local newspaper. the former is higher-quality in general, but gets it wrong on occasion too, whereas the latter might publish a lot of stuff that's well-reported but just not terribly exciting. the main difference in reliability comes from the fact that when the bigger outlet publishes something that's wrong, it's more likely that someone will bother publishing a rebuttal. (actually, my very first article ever disputed the central finding of a paper in _nature_ that'd gotten some attention, at least in the trade press. afaik, i was right, too) to attempt to outline how _i_ read papers critically, i guess i start with cutting to the heart-of-the-matter: _what_, exactly did they do? what do they claim this shows? does that claim sound reasonable, and does the evidence support it? and to what extent? and what alternate explanations are possible? and is this really new or relevant? (which is one thing nobody ever really takes people's claims at face value, since everyone _always_ says that*) i think most pick their battles - if the reported conclusions seem reasonable, but the evidence is a bit lacking, i wouldn't bother. you've got to draw the line somewhere. anyway, in general i'd say that a non-sensational result in a non-sensational journal would be expected. but a sensational-if-true result published in an obscure journal is something to be treated with skepticism. if you claim to have found evidence of life on mars, it better be in _science_ or _nature_ and not _the uzbek journal of astrobiology_ or something. (*to take an example from my own work, when reading up about enzyme reaction mechanisms, i find it hilariously predictable that _every single time_ an experimental biochemist has managed to isolate and characterize a new state of the enzyme, they will _always_ find some way to claim that this new-found state represents a key catalytic intermediate of its reaction mechanism) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/505706/description",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_factor",
"http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/505705/description"
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askscience: i am not conversant enough in physics to understand the recent abstracts from atlas and cms. can you help translate these into non-technical terms? | i have a chemistry background, so i have taken physics for scientists and engineers, thermodynamics, and quantum mechanics. however, none of this covered standard model or any particle physics, or any of the notations used by these guys. from my gcms experience, i am guessing that "integrated luminosities" refers to the detector's output. [[atlas abstract]](_url_1_) a search for the standard model higgs boson in proton-proton collisions with the atlas detector at the lhc is presented. the datasets used correspond to integrated luminosities of approximately 4.8 fb^-1 collected at sqrt(s) = 7 tev in 2011 and 5.8 fb^-1 at sqrt(s) = 8 tev in 2012. individual searches in the channels h- > zz^(*)- > llll, h- > gamma gamma and h- > ww- > e nu mu nu in the 8 tev data are combined with previously published results of searches for h- > zz^(*), ww^(*), bbbar and tau^+tau^- in the 7 tev data and results from improved analyses of the h- > zz^(*)- > llll and h- > gamma gamma channels in the 7 tev data. clear evidence for the production of a neutral boson with a measured mass of 126.0 +/- 0.4(stat) +/- 0.4(sys) gev is presented. this observation, which has a significance of 5.9 standard deviations, corresponding to a background fluctuation probability of 1.7x10^-9, is compatible with the production and decay of the standard model higgs boson. [[cms abstract]](_url_0_) results are presented from searches for the standard model higgs boson in proton-proton collisions at sqrt(s)=7 and 8 tev in the cms experiment at the lhc, using data samples corresponding to integrated luminosities of up to 5.1 inverse femtobarns at 7 tev and 5.3 inverse femtobarns at 8 tev. the search is performed in five decay modes: gamma gamma, zz, ww, tau tau, and b b-bar. an excess of events is observed above the expected background, a local significance of 5.0 standard deviations, at a mass near 125 gev, signalling the production of a new particle. the expected significance for a standard model higgs boson of that mass is 5.8 standard deviations. the excess is most significant in the two decay modes with the best mass resolution, gamma gamma and zz; a fit to these signals gives a mass of 125.3 +/- 0.4 (stat.) +/- 0.5 (syst.) gev. the decay to two photons indicates that the new particle is a boson with spin different from one. | here's a sentence-by-sentence explanation of the atlas abstract: hopefully that part is clear ;-) this is saying that they are using both the 2011 run of the lhc and the 2012 run which lasted from this past april to june. for the 2011 run, the protons were collided at a speed such that the total energy of a pair of colliding protons in their center of mass frame would be 7 tev, and for the 2012 run, the collider was upgraded such that that energy would be 8 tev. the 4.8 fb^-1 and 5.8 fb^-1 are, as you suspected, a measure of how many collisions the collider produced over each period. let me suggest [this](_url_0_) to understand what an inverse femtobarn is and the meaning of integrated luminosity. to make sense of this you have to know about decay channels. basically, when a higgs boson is produced in the collider, there are various ways it can decay; for example, it can decay into a pair of z bosons which then decay into four leptons (h → zz^(*) → llll), or it can decay into two photons (h → γγ), etc. when the atlas people are analyzing the data, they have to look for each of these "signatures" of higgs decay separately. so for example, they'll pick out all the collisions in which four leptons of appropriate types were detected, and then run a statistical analysis on the momenta and energies of those leptons. they would have found a slight excess of these events with a center-of-mass energy of 126 gev, relative to what would be predicted by the calculations. and similarly for the other channels. in this bit they're saying that they have used the results of analyzing each channel for the 2012 data, as well as results of a better analysis of the 2011 data than was previously published. this, of course, just says that they found something, an overall excess of events which is strongest at center-of-mass energy (126.0±0.4±0.4) gev. the two uncertainties correspond to the statistical error and the systematic error on their determination of the location of that peak. and the thing about 5.9 standard deviations means that there's a probability of 1.7×10^-9 that they would have observed what they did without there actually being a new particle there. and here they're saying that what they observed is compatible with the possibility of the new particle being the standard model higgs. they can't definitely say that it _is_ the sm higgs yet; in order to do that, they'll need to make more precise measurements of just how often this new particle decays via one channel versus another - that is, what fraction of the time it decays into two photons vs. four leptons etc. - and compare those results to the predictions of the standard model. the cms abstract mostly says the same thing with some different numbers. it does mention specifically that which is just a result of angular momentum conservation: since a photon has spin one, a particle with spin one couldn't decay into two photons. | 4 | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1207.7235",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1207.7214"
] | [
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/12059/what-is-an-inverse-femto-barn"
] | [
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what is the energy cost of thought? | this question is easily answered with google: _url_0_ this article is from the new york times, and contains a quote from david a. levitsky, a professor of nutrition and psychology at cornell university. he is paraphrased as saying that were a person to perform concentrated mental activity for an extended period of time, such as multiplying complex numbers, would consume about 10 extra calories per day. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/02/science/02qna.html"
] | [
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why do human beings like to collect things for the sake of collecting, and do any other species do it? | i'm going to go out on a limb here, since most everyone has taken this to be about the evolutionary underpinning of collecting. i work in an art museum, and study the psychology of teaching/learning within them. the act of collecting is really loaded with social and cultural meaning, some of which is deeply personal. some collectors, curators, and art appreciators are focused on the meanings they have for a specific object, or type of object. for instance, some collect works of a region they have a familiarity with. others collect based on their own culture, say, an african american collecting west african masks, or a 5th generation irish american collecting irish porcelain (both examples we've had exhibitions of recently). others are collecting based on stylistic or historical importance. this is where the cultural meaning, and the desired outcomes become really important. some collect with the expressed intent to share "classics" with a new generation. others collect to show their wealth or intelligence to others. yet others collect as an investment, and are looking for financial security. all of that is a bit more specific than a collection of rocks, or baseball cards, but much of it is the same. there's a connoiseurship involved, which is learned and evaluated based on standards of excellence and desired traits. sure, this could be associated (and probably is) with things like picking qualities in any number of evolutionary important tasks (picking a mate, home location, food, etc.), but it's been made much more complex because of our dynamic social interactions. we learn from others what to look for, and practice developing our own criteria for what to add to our collections. collecting, for us, is a particularly powerful way of communication. it tells of our values, social placement, and intelligence. the things we collect reflect our location, and hold memories of specific experiences, and broad cultural events. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
earth day and power system load | hi everyone, i'm starting to see earth day 2012 promo online and i'm wondering, when a whole lot of load is suddenly removed from the electrical system all at the same time, does it cause any significant damage to the electric generators? do power plants have to prepare for this event in advance? | typically a loss of load does not cause damage to generators. generators specifically will have overspeed trips set related to a certain frequency (i.e. 66 hz in a 60 hz system) and various regions (at least in the us) have ways to deal with a sudden loss of load and sudden increase in frequency. in washington state, bpa (bonneville power administration) has a 'braking resistor' rated at 1,400 mw that will insert if a large transmission corridor going to california is lost. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
the sambuca "gas chamber" shot, what is going on here? | _url_0_ you light a shot of sambuca in a snifter, you pour the flaming shot into another waiting glass while keeping the snifter held upside down above the flames (this catches the "alcohol fumes"). after the shot had extinguished, set the still upside down snifter on the bar or table, take the shot and then, by tipping the snifter slightly and with the help of a straw, inhale what is in the snifter. as a bartender, i've prepared this drink for people more times than i can count but have never really understood what's actually happening. the general claim is that the burning alcohol is turning to fumes or vapors and by inhaling them they go straight to your bloodstream via the lungs giving the shooter an instant rush of alcohol to the head. is this actually the case or is there something else going on here? | not including the chemicals that give sambuca it's flavour, i'd imagine they're just inhaling co2 and h2o among other combustion route products. there's probably some unreacted ethanol in there as well but you're better off drinking the stuff. as a mucus irritant, inhaling ethanol can't be good for the lungs. it also dries out the nasal passage among [other things](_url_0_). imagine spraying air freshener down you're throat or getting addicted to glue. well drinking it isn't any good either but i'll keep quiet about that... | 2 | [] | [
"http://youtu.be/se42dyN2C8Q"
] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2961648"
] | [
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how can the "runner's knee" be so poorly understood? | so, i was informing myself about patellofemoral syndrome and i was shocked when i learnt how little is known about it. i read from wikipedia that: > the causes of pfps are unclear, but there are several theories. which issues give rise to the pain is debated. similarly, there is no consensus as to what is the best way of treating pfps, and there is not enough evidence to support any particular management approach. so... i've read that it is the most common cause of anterion knee pain and yet there is no known treatment, it is known not to respond to anti-inflammatory drugs and mri imaging does not show anything wrong. (which explains why nsaids do not work, if there were a proper inflammation it whould show up in an mr) how can such a common problem be so mysterious? | greetings from the orthopedic research society conference in las vegas! there are thousands of orthopedic researchers and clinicians here for 5 full days of talks, posters, and presentations on current orthopedic research. there are about 60 or 70 symposia here, some 800 talks.... about 20 of those talks are on ligament and tendon. there are 2031 posters here, and 9 are on patellofemoral disease (i just checked). compare that to hundreds on meniscus, or hip replacements, or bone diseases, etc. i've been a lung guy most of my life, but for the past year, i've been working for a company that does a lot of work in the tendon and ligament field. so, in that capacity, i also attended the international symposium for ligaments and tendons, which immediately preceded the ors meeting. all the big names in the field were there. 150 people. for one day. so that's why, or at least one reason why..... there's not a lot of funding, and therefore not a lot of people working on it. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes the body's rejection response? | specifically in an organ transplant (kindey, liver, heart, etc). what are some of the factors decide if the body accepts or rejects the new addition? | immunology was a few months ago but from what i recall, the overall idea is that almost all of your cells express a protein complex called mhc, there are two types of mhc and they just have a space where they present little pieces of your proteins to the immune cells (a protein complex show a protein to tour immune cells, that's about it). they are fundamental in your body's immune response, serving somewhat as a trigger, so when you have a transplant, the mhc expressed in that organ is different from yours(your own mhc), and the proteins presented in the mhc are also different(from the proteins your mhc normally presents), the immune cells do not like that. this is actually way more complicated than this because you'll have direct and indirect presentation of antigens, i can't really explain more without reviewing my notes, and i may have somethings wrong also on what i said. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
the more i read about hep c the more scared i get | i have been reading a lot about it since 2 people i know have now tested positive even though there is no way they have engaged in any obvious risk activities. now i am reading that 10-20% of people have no idea where they contracted it, it can be spread in microscopic drops of blood, through chapped skin. it can also survive for days if not weeks outside the body. in this study: _url_0_ it survived for 7 days in a jar of barber's antiseptic. so, do i need to be paranoid of every break in my skin? taking my contact lenses out? considering i know people contracting it through completely unknown means it seems like it should be garnishing far more attention than aids etc. | as you mentioned, hepatitis c can survive for a while outside of the body, but one problem with the study you cited was that it did not look at active virus. what they did there was use rt-pcr to detect rna from the virus, and while rna is necessary for the virus to cause infection, rna alone cannot infect you. they don't say what kind of antiseptic the barbers are using, but they are frequently alcohol based and isopropanol and ethanol are both active against hcv ([list of products for hcv decon from the epa](_url_0_)). at the same time, ethanol and isopropanol will not degrade the rna being tested. in fact i use isopropanol and ethanol when i need to isolate purified, in tact rna. as irishz said below, you don't need to be paranoid of catching hcv. just take normal precautions against disease, like washing your hands before handling your contact lenses and don't share personal items such as razors or needles that could come into contact with blood. | 12 | [] | [
"http://www.hepcprimer.com/xmit/haircut.html"
] | [
"http://www.epa.gov/oppad001/list_f_hepatitisC.pdf",
"http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/HCV/"
] | [
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is exercising regularly a "free pass" to eating unhealthy foods? | if i exercise regularly, am i lessening the amount of 'damage' or adverse effects of unhealthy foods that i eat? is it still unhealthy, but just not as unhealthy? perhaps an explanation of what is at work when i am exercising/eating is in order here. this question has been on my mind for sometime and i finally have a good place to ask! thanks! | relevant is the story of a nutrition professor who lost 27lbs in 10weeks eating only twinkies, chips, and cookies by reducing his overall caloric intake and exercising to prove a point. despite the poor nutritional value the lost weight increased his overall health. _url_0_ | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/11/08/twinkie.diet.professor/index.html"
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i have a couple questions about obsidian. | 1) as far as i know, which granted, isn't very far, obsidian is formed when lava cools more quickly. if this is the case, why does it not form when lava hit water? 2) a lot of ancient peoples made tools out of obsidian, but they were all made by chipping. with our modem technology, can we carve obsidian? specifically in regards to making blades or straight edges. could we cut a knife blade out of obsidian? | obsidian can be formed using abrasive processes (e.g. sanding). i don't know about going after it with a hammer and chisel, but i doubt it could be carved in that fashion due to its fracture behavior. i've seen plates and bowls, and some really lovely jewelry carved from obsidian. as far a straight blades, sure you could form them from obsidian. but you'll get a sharper blade using the traditional technique of knapping. obsidian exhibits a conchoidal fracture pattern which can produce extremely sharp edges. some obsidian knapped blades have cutting edges only a few nanometers in thickness. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any turtle experts here? i often stop and move turtles out of the road. is it better to just move them to the side of the road or to take them someplace away from roads? | i usually just place them in the grass on the side they were moving toward, but occasionally i have taken them to a completely different location, such as a park with a pond or lake. which is better for the turtle? i was wondering if it makes any difference to the turtle to be taken miles away from where i found it. i would rather take it to the park where it has less of a chance of getting back onto a road and getting hit by a car. however, i don't know much about turtles and would like to know if they have an established territory, and if so, is my removing them from it detrimental to them? obviously it is better for the turtle to not get hit by a car, but if my taking it miles away is just going to cause the turtle to walk back to where i found it, i would just continue to move them across the road. | turtle expert here. turtles on the road are either trying to nest on the shoulder or are crossing the road. if it is a very aquatic species (alligator snapper, any of the softshells, musk turtles (*sternotherus*), map turtles (*graptemys*), it is almost certainly a nesting movement. if it is a "pond" turtle (snapper, blandings, painted, slider) it is likely to be a nesting movement but they also frequently move overland as part of dispersal movements or to shuttle between habitat patches. some species, such as spotted turtles and mud turltes (*kinosternon*) (or *chelodina* if you're in australia) aestivate and/or hibernate on land and so may cross a road in transit. if it is a highly terrestrial turtle like a box turtle then it might be simply a within home range movements (although individuals with roads bisecting their home range tend to get killed) or searching for a mate or better habitat or again, a nesting site. the usual advice is to move them in the direction that they were going. amerrickangirl is right, they usually do know where they are going (how they know is much more uncertain). do not move them anywhere else because most turtles have a fairly strong homing tendency and are likely to end up crossing more roads than not if dropped somewhere unfamiliar. even mostly-aquatic species will travel several kilometers overland on occasion. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how bad is teflon really? | a friend of mine came over to visit for the holidays. he saw my pans and almost refused to eat out of them because they were a bit worn and had a teflon surface. they were expensive high-quality items a long time ago. he said "the grease has gotten into the pan ..." now i have heard that teflon is not that good for you - but so is greasy food and burnt toast; so my question is: how bad is it really? what is the real science behind it and should i replace my crockery? | under most circumstances, teflon is an inert substance which therefore cannot harm you, and even if it is porous and has absorbed grease, that grease is also not harmful, it just adds to the lubrication of the pan. it is also true that if teflon is exposed to very high temperatures, higher than you would normally use for cooking, it can decompose and release fluorine gas, which is intensely toxic. so, it is dangerous to expose teflon to an open flame. this was discovered by an investigation into a mysterious illness that was affecting people inside a submarine. people in a submarine are particularly vulnerable because they re-circulate their air while they are underwater, and toxins can build up. and apparently they were careless in the way they handled their teflon coated cookware. in summary, it is ok to use teflon, but don't let it contact an open flame. | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does a low plasma osmolality imply that we have a low blood volume, and vice versa? | and does that mean a high plasma osmolality implies high blood volume? | the short answer is no. the most commonly seen situation where a person has a high blood volume is heart failure. the simplified mechanism is that the heart is having trouble pumping and the body sees it as not having enough blood so it retains sodium. as water follows solutes, water is retained as well giving a general normal osmolality but high volume state. most common situations that you see a high osmolality are low blood volume, ie dehydration. they have lost free water, from diuretics, diabetes, or increased loses like sweating or burns. in all those situations you lose more free water than solutes resulting a high osmolality, but low volume state. other values that are checked to assess volume status are sodium and hematologic values like hemoglobin and hematocrit. no one value can give an indication of volume status, because different situations can give different values in relation to volume status. an example is acute blood loss. in very fast blood loss the body has no time to adjust so hemoglobin is normal, but with more slow blood loss the body reacts and retains water diluting the blood and giving a low hemoglobin. i can't think of any situation where a person would have high volume and high osmolality except for maybe iatrogenic, like they were given too much hypertonic fluids, but that seems unlikely. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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pollutants from china in grand canyon? | in summer of 2008 my wife and myself were visiting the grand canyon. being from hawaii, and other than volcano haze, we are used to quite clear skies. we were astonished at how much haze was in, and around the grand canyon seriously cutting the view. we inquired a park ranger who told us most was from north america, but stated about 30% was from china and it's pollutants. in another post i stated such, to which i was challenged that such was impossible. that person said i should askscience on this claim. how about it ask science? i'm a surfer, and know the conditions for the causes of northern swells, so i find such pollution plausible. is what the ranger said correct or close, or was that ranger exaggerating? | regional haze (which is the regulatory term for what you're describing) is obviously generated by pollutants, and specifically nitrates, sulfates, and particles. the epa even has a regulatory program designed to deal with regional haze and improve visibility, with specific visibility targets that must be met in class i areas and requirements for plans and controls to be implemented by the states. in the west, recently the regional haze problem is mostly a function of nitrates and particles in the atmosphere. sulfates have been increasingly controlled, through lower-sulfur diesel and exhaust scrubbing on major power plants. of the nitrates and particles, nitrates are trickiest. they can travel from across the pacific, but they are more likely to precipitate out of the atmosphere through interactions with particles or reacted away in various ways. those that travel longest are those that make it to stratospheric elevations, but they do not contribute significantly to ground-level regional haze. the particles are a different story. combustion-driven particles like elemental and organic carbons are unlikely to travel across the pacific as there are many mechanisms for their deposition and they are not normally generated in massive quantities. but so-called "crustal" particles can travel across the pacific if there is an episode of high dust generation, such as happens in china. so to make a long story short, talking about the average visibility at the grand canyon, i do not think it is accurate to suggest that particulate matter or nitrate emissions from china make up anywhere near 30% of the regional haze. however, there can certainly be episodes where those emissions in china can make up such a large fraction. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do we need to do relativistic adjustments because of galactic motion? | during a recent conversation we found that the earth is moving at around 10% lightspeed towards the leo constellation due mostly due to the motion of the milky way. does this mean that we need to take this into account due to relativity when doing any kind of precise measurements? it's my understanding that because light is a special snowflake that the fact that anything we are measuring is moving with us is irrelevant to some degree. cheers! | 10% of lights speed? i'm pretty sure it's only a few hundred kilometers per second. anyway, the answer is that things in their own rest frame always feel at rest. time passes at one second per second. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a few gravity/time related questions. | i had a documentary on tv the other day regarding albert einstein. i wasn't paying too much attention but one thing did catch my attention. albert einstein had a theory that time is affected by gravity and that gravity actually slows time down. (whether this has been proven true or not or whether it is still a theory i don't know). the example used is that by the time you're around 80 years old, your head has aged 3 seconds more than your feet. my questions regarding this is how tall would you need to be to notice a physical difference, if gravity affecting time is true. by that i mean how tall would you need to be for your upper half to be 10 years ~ younger than your lower half. this one might sound a bit obvious but if gravity does affect time, would the strength of a gravitational pull on a planet affect the length of time a day/year is. i know some planets have longer days/years than others, is this because of the gravitational pull on those planets affecting time? and third and finally, if gravity does affect time is it significant enough for astronauts in space etc to notice a difference in time perception? does time feel slower? does an hour seem to be an hour and 1 minute for example? | regarding your third question, effects of time dilation are not felt. this is true for gravitational and doppler dilation. your clock ticks at a normal pace. someone on earth would appear to move quickly from your point of view. its all relative, hence the name. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/moslive/article-1269288/STEPHEN-HAWKING-How-build-time-machine.html**"
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can two things truly be said to happen at the same time? | if two things seemed to happen at the same time you could watch it in slow motion and realize one started to happen sooner. could two things actually happen exactly at the same time? | there is no absolute meaning to events happening simultaneously. one of the lessons of relativity is that the notion of two things happening at the same time is observer-dependent. if some observer measures two events to occur simultaneously, then any other observers moving relative to the first observer will measure those events to be non-simultaneous, with which one coming first depending on the particular motion of the observer. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what major stars can be seen in pennsylvania but not in florida? (and vice versa) | specifically the latitudes of 41°n and 28°n | ignoring the fact that it's hard to see things very close to the horizon. you'd be looking for stars between [declination](_url_1_) -49 degrees and -62 degrees, which is the strip of sky that you can see in florida but not pennsylvania at the latitudes you are interested in. according to an excel file over at the [nexstar site](_url_0_) the named stars in this range are these: name|declination|constellation :--|:--|:-- tchou | -49°53'|ara canopus | -52°42'|carina peacock | -56°44' |pavo gacrux | -57°07' |crux achernar | -57°14' |eridanus scutulum | -59°17' |carina avior | -59°31' |carina mimosa | -59°41' | crux hadar | -60°22' | centaurus alpha centauri | -60°50' | centaurus edit: forgot to add that there aren't any stars that you can see in pennsylvania but not florida. a good way to think of it is like this: at the north pole you can only see the "top half" of the sky, from declination 90 to 0. but from the equator you can see the entire sky from -90 to 90 declination as the earth rotates you around. pa and fl are less extreme versions of this effect. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nexstarsite.com/Downloads.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declination#Stars"
] | [
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mystery liquid in my grandpa's basement | could be just white paint? titanium dioxide is 4.3 times as dense as water. a paint with tio2 would be less dense than that, but probably not much less dense. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is information in the context of physics? | my question is: is information considered a physical property of the universe or of it's objects in a modern physics setting? if so, what is the definition of information, and how does it relate to other properties? context: i've seen information (measured in bits) come up in some physics discussions and articles in wikipedia. for example: the maxwel's devil thought experiment seems to lead to a situation where the 2nd law of thermodynamics is disrespected, until you consider that adquiring information about a system requires spending of energy. that is reasonable, but the amount of energy to information is calculated. how can this be? also, i've seen information being brought up in discussions about black holes, but that subject is way beyond my league. i think i have an ok qualitative understanding of modern physics, but a small and vague quantitative (math) understanding. so maybe this question doesn't even make sense, or maybe the answer can only be understood with a lot of math. i'm sorry if that's the case. | when "information" is measured in bits, they are using [shannon's entropy](_url_0_), which is mathematically similar to [gibbs entropy](_url_1_) differing by a constant (and the units). regardless when used in such a context information can be interpreted as the minimum length bit sequence on average needed to determine the particular state of a system. when all states are equally likely, then the entropy is just log (number of states). this makes sense because to specify any one of these particular states, all of which are equally likely, you would expect to use the same number of bits because of symmetry. on the other hand if some states are more likely than others, you can assign the more likely ones shorter bit sequences resulting in a shorter code. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy_(information_theory\\)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy_(statistical_thermodynamics\\)#Gibbs_entropy_formula",
"http://forums.xkcd.com/viewtopic.php?t=113079"
] | [
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] |
a question about electricity | so a tv show got me thinking about resistance and the conversion from electrical energy to thermal energy. the details of the show don't matter but the question i ended up with is, given constant voltage, would more heat be generated in a insulator or in a conductor? would it be the same? in a insulator the current is weaker but a larger percentage of it is converted to thermal energy, while in a conductor the opposite is true. can someone direct me to a formula that would help me calculate this? i'm assuming it's not enough to know voltage and resistance and that other material properties come in to play, but that's just a guess. | the heat output of a resistor is i^2 \*r, where r is resistance and i is electrical current. that can be converted using ohm's law v=i\*r to v^2 /r. so with the same voltage, lower resistance produces more heat output which is actually because more current flows, thus the insulator puts out less heat. however if you instead say let's put the same current on both resistors then it is the insulator that produces more heat. since it doesn't cost anything to put a voltage on something, it is the current that actually is the important factor here. and so in terms of efficiency, ie the ratio of input electrical power (i\*v) to output heat power (i^2 \*r), the insulator is a better heater. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any methods of recording uncertainties without observing them? | quantum mechanics has many particles and functions which are in a state of uncertainty until they are observed, where they collapse into a single state. my question is, are there any methods, theoretical or real, to record such things for future observation? for example, is it possible to freeze a quantum state in time so that it may be observed later on, and the data recorded? and as a further question, in quantum mechanics, what exactly counts as observation? is it only human observation, or can it also be animal observation? what about mechanical? and does changing the observer create a difference in the observed state? | there's a lot of questions in this post and some things you seem confused on, so i'll try to address each thing one by one. let's start with the confusion. you're confusing *uncertainty* with *superposition*. an "observable" (a property that you can measure, like position, momentum, spin, etc.) has "eigenstates", which are quantum states corresponding to a definite allowable value of the observable. you can put a quantum system in a superposition of multiple eigenstates. a superposition is just a linear combination of multiple states. (for example, a chord of ceg on the piano is just a superposition of the sounds of c, e, and g.) when you measure the superposed system, it will collapse to one of the eigenstates with a probability proportional to "how much" of the eigenstate was in the superposition. *uncertainty* is a related, but separate concept. the uncertainty between two observables describes how much information you can simultaneously gather about both properties. mathematically, two observables do not share a common set of eigenstates, they will have an uncertainty relation between them. conceptually, let's take the classic example of momentum and position. suppose i have a slinky and i make waves in it that travel down the slinky. if i measure the wavelength of the waves that i make, i actually get a distribution of values centered around some dominant frequency. the only way that i can get an *exact* value for a wavelength is if i make a [standing wave](_url_0_), which has an exact wavelength. but this gives me no information about the position of the wave, because it is spread out over the entire slinky! this is a very close analogy to how things behave quantum mechanically - uncertainty is not specific to quantum mechanics, it describes general scenarios where knowledge of one property precludes knowledge of another one. okay, on to your remaining questions. there are quantum states that have observables which do not evolve over time, but the "phase" of a quantum state evolves at a rate proportional to the energy of the system, so to "freeze" a state would involve cooling it to absolute zero, which isn't possible. this is actually an open question in physics and there isn't a single answer that is universally agreed upon. however, as much as pop-sci media would like to have you believe otherwise, an observation doesn't have anything to do with consciousness, so a human observation or an animal observation or a mechanical observation are all the same. changing the observer with another macroscopic object makes no difference. the actual process of wavefunction collapse is also poorly understood. there are a lot of theories with varying degrees of credibility interpreting this, including [the many-worlds interpretation](_url_1_), [grw theory](_url_2_), and the (most popular) [copenhagen interpretation](_url_3_). | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/waves/swf.gif",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-worlds_interpretation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghirardi%E2%80%93Rimini%E2%80%93Weber_theory",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen_interpretation"
] | [
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is there an activity like "herping" but with small mammals? | by the way, please no downvotes because of the stupid "herp derp" thing on reddit. this is a real thing; here's proof: _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herping"
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|
questions about fluid mechanics in atomic/molecular level. | i'm generally interested on how well we can derive macroscopic behavior of fluids if we know the structure of particles that make up the fluid and how much the shape and structure of particles affects the fluid equations. i'm completely ignorant of the subject (i know about reynolds number but that's it). i can't even figure interesting questions, but following things have been bothering me: 1. how much kinetic energy is stored in angular momentum of fluid particles? is there big difference between different fluids? 2. how important is the the shape of fluid molecules? for example, hydrogen atoms versus water molecules. | it's a fair question: we can't derive them very well, actually. with fluids, you traditionally model it at the macroscopic end, where it's assumed to be homogeneous if not more (say, incompressible and whatnot). you use parameters describing bulk properties such as density, dynamic and kinematic viscosity and so on. physically/conceptually the models are quite simple, although the resulting equations are not. ([navier-stokes](_url_3_), for instance) on the other end, you have physical chemistry and the basic interactions of molecules. ([intermolecular forces](_url_2_)) these do depend on the shapes of the molecules, but a lot more than just that. generally, all molecules attract at far ranges and repel at short range (although the distances and the amount of attraction vary quite a bit). even that is a bit simplified, since you're not taking into account chemistry/chemical reactions, which can be important even to a fluid that doesn't seem to be 'reacting'. for instance, water molecules in a solution are constantly breaking into h^+ and oh^- and recombining. the water molecules are also continuously swapping hydrogen atoms with each other, especially if there's an h^+ around ([animation](_url_1_)). these things actually end up having an impact on the bulk properties of water. nevertheless, there are at least _some_ relations between bulk and microscopic properties that are straightforward. the density of the liquid together with the size/weight of the molecules tells you something about their average spacing. the boiling point has a relationship to how strongly the average molecule binds to its neighbors. the viscosity tells you about the average amount of energy or 'friction' required to move a molecule. so in a hotter substance, where the molecules have more kinetic energy relative the strength of the intermolecular forces, would be expected to have a lower viscosity - which is also typically the case. you'd also expect something that's more viscous to have a stronger intermolecular forces, and a higher boiling point, which is also the case. so compare water and ethanol for instance. the main intermolecular force in both cases is hydrogen bonds. but while an h2o molecule can work as a 'donor' of two h-bonds and an 'acceptor' of two more, an ethanol molecule can only donate one and accept one. so just from that, you'd surmise that ethanol is probably less viscous and has a lower boiling point than water (which is correct). if you compare the chemical structures, it's also clear that while a water molecule weighs less than an ethanol molecule, it's heavier relative its size because the water molecules lump together more closely. which explains ethanol's lower density. (at the same time, the fact that both do hydrogen-bonding implies that they're miscible) but once you mix two liquids (such as ethanol and water), you end up with something that's actually quite difficult to predict just from the molecular level. because now you have to take into account all the many ways that they can combine and form clusters around each other, and how these things will all contribute to the averaged properties that you see in bulk. 'ideally', we'd like to pretend that you could take a weighted average - that if a binary mixture was 30 % ethanol and 70% water, it's value for property x would be 30% of that of ethanol plus 70% of that for water. obviously this is true as the concentrations go towards 100% or 0%, but it's seldom a very good approximation (even if it's used) in-between. (which is why you distinguish alcohol-by-weight and alcohol-by-volume - 1 liter of ethanol mixed with 1 liter of water has a combined volume of _less_ than 2 liters) there's simply a lot here that we don't really know yet. to a large extent the whole 'nanotechnology' thing is about working within thes gap in our knowledge that exist between between the 'molecular' level and the 'bulk' level. while we can tell _some_ things and determine some general relationships between the two, it's quite difficult (and requires specific modeling and simulation) to try to determine the specifics. how much of the thermal energy is partitioned into the angular momentum of a molecule, depends on the rotational states of that molecule, which to a first approximation depends on the structure and masses of the molecule. (using a model such as the [quantum-mechanical rigid rotor](_url_0_) approximation) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigid_rotor",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Proton_Zundel.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermolecular_force",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes_equations",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_mechanics"
] | [
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how does qpcr work for quantification? | i understand the idea of pcr is to amplify dna but how does qpcr enable us to quantify dna (through sybr green or taqman)? what exactly does it allow us to quanitfy? and why would we want to quantify what it allows us to quantify? | okay here we go: when you do pcr, you're getting exponential amplification of dna, because you have 1 copy - qpcr works the same way. the dye in the loose nucleotides fluoresces only when incorporated into double-stranded dna, so when you go through a cycle and your dna doubles, it will glow twice as bright when a laser is shined on it. then the next cycle, it'll double again, and again, etc. such that your reaction well is 2^*x* times brighter, assuming perfect doubling, than when you started. now, this number isn't perfect. when you start your pcr or qpcr, it takes a bit of time to ramp up the "doubling" cycle, because the dna molecules are limiting-- for the sample you put in, let's say there are 1000 molecules, maybe only 250 get replicated in the first cycle (now you have 1500 instead of 2000 if there were perfect doubling), then maybe another 500 in the second, etc. by the end of your pcr, you get a plateau because your reagents (loose nucleotides) get used up and your taq may have started denaturing. but that magic middle, you get exponential doubling (this is the point of inflection on the curve). that's the critical part of the qpcr. why do qpcr? you can quantify dna in a sample if you want. you'd do that if you're doing some very sensitive application (like sequencing) where you want to make sure that you not only have the right concentration of dna, but that you have the right concentration of the dna you're looking to sequence. this makes the actual sequencing process cheaper because you don't under- or over-load your flow cell. more commonly, though, qpcr is used to quantify rna. you'd do this to see if a particular gene is being expressed more in one sample than another. for example, is an enzyme expressed more in liver tissue or in kidney tissue? is it expressed more in mouse 1's liver, who just took an experimental drug, than in mouse 2's liver, the control? to address questions like this, you would use a kit to extract rna from your sample and then use reverse transcriptase to turn all of your sample's rna into dna (because it's more stable). then you load the dna into your qpcr reaction. if your gene of interest was more highly expressed in mouse 1, then when you do qpcr, you will see the exponential amplification occur sooner in sample 1, because there was a higher concentration of this transcript in mouse 1's liver in the first place. the difference in cycle counts between sample 1 and sample 2's point of exponential amplification reflect how many times more transcript was in mouse 1 than mouse 2's liver, because each cycle doubles the amount of dna. so if mouse 1 had 20 cycles, and mouse 2 had 22 cycles until exponential amplification, then there are (2 cycles x 2 doubles = ) 4 times more of your gene of interest expressed in mouse 1 than mouse 2. but wait! you may ask. what if i accidentally started with more of mouse 1's liver than mouse 2's liver, so there's just more dna overall? we control for that by using housekeeping genes as a control. housekeeping genes are highly expressed in all tissues. we normalize our experimental transcript to the housekeeping transcripts so that we can make sure that our samples have the same amount of total dna. i think that's it. now, more questions: is it true that the amount of transcript = the amount of active enzyme? is more enzyme always meaningful? that, we don't know. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what caused the 750 gev diphoton excess at cern? | i'm interested in what specific mechanism would have caused the exact same statistical anomaly to effect both atlas and cms? what exactly causes anomalies like this to appear? | statistics. specifically, random chance. the actual measurement in this case was "how many pairs of photons did i find with this particular energy." the physical processes that produce these photons are fundamentally random due to quantum mechanics, so while we can predict how many pairs we should see with or without a new particle, the actual number measured will be a little bit different due to random chance. sometimes higher, sometimes lower. but we can also predict *how far off* the measurement is likely to be, so we can tell if something is probably (or not) random chance. in the case of the 750 gev excess, in 2015, each detector saw some extra photon pairs. the probability of one detector seeing that many extra pairs *at this specific energy* was something like 0.1% or less--so pretty surprising, right? however, one has to consider that there are many possible places for random excesses to appear. accounting for that (in this particular search) meant that the probability of an excess this big *somewhere* was something like 2%-5%. less exciting. but since a *second* detector saw it in the *same place* we get to combine these probabilities, and the odds of it happening became something like 0.005%--less than one time out of ten thousand, doing a naive combination. (note: these numbers are all very rough, based on my rough memory of how many sigma the excesses were, and a rough conversion to probabilities. also, particle physicists don't usually combine the results of the two experiments until after discovery, both because it is typically very difficult to do so, and to avoid getting too excited.) that's not the gold standard for discoveries in particle physics (one in three million) for a reason. particle physics experiments perform *thousands* of independent searches for new physics over many years. so, while we were slightly unlucky, these things happen from time to time. that's why we needed more data---not because anything was wrong, but just because we couldn't yet be confident enough---for good reason! | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i just planted seeds. what are they doing now? | specifically, in the first few hours in a good environment with water? | the answer to this is "not a great deal in the first couple of hours" though it very, very much depends on what seeds they were. the principal triggers for germination are sufficient water availability, oxygen and the correct termparture range. with those 3 things right seeds will germinate. light can be a germination trigger for some seeds but you'll notice that many, many seeds can be germinated in the open on a bed of moist tissue paper. you've probably germinated cress seeds or bean sprouts in this way as a kid. your seeds need ready access to oxygen so this requires they aren't burried too deep nor are they burried in soil which is packed too tight and it mustn't be water logged either. with regards temperature triggers these can vary a lot (from freezing triggered germination to fire triggered germination) but the vast majority of seeds germinate best in a termperature range just above typical room temperatures (76-90 f or 24-32 c). hence why slightly burried seeds germinate towards the start of spring. the most important trigger is the access to water. most seeds are very dry and in order to germinate they need to soak up a fair amount of water so that the living and enzymatic processes in the cells can "begin". water has multiple important effects such as softening the seed coat but probably the most important initial action is that the water enters the cells and activates a range of hydrolytic enzymes. these enzymes are responsible for breaking down and accessing the stored energy in the seeds (i.e. starches and/or fats). once this energy is available the cells can start to grow and divide. access to this energy and water also triggers a whole suite of gene activation and it is these genes which will coordinate the cell division and plant growth. depending on the plant switching on these genes might be rapid on the order of a couple of hours (i.e. cress) or could take a day or more. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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math-metrology-history question. why did industry pick 1/64ths? | i know most of the world uses the metric system. i'm also aware they make 1/100" marked machinist rules and "engineering tape measures" which are marked in tenths of a foot. everybody loves base 10, i get it. if i want extreme accuracy i'll use a micrometer, not a machinist's rule. this is purely a historical interest question. one foot contains 12 inches. this is a perfectly logical choice to divide a measurement standard into. base 12 is evenly divisible into more fractions than base 10 (metric) as a result there's less mental math and less "splitting the difference" between graduations if you work with a ruler all day long. following that logic, why are inches on machinist rules traditionally marked and subdivided in 1/64th's? wouldn't 1/60th divisions make more sense? why did they sacrifice a significant advantage for such a small gain in precision? do engineers just hate dividing into things into thirds that much? | it's easier to divide by two when it's an eyeball measure. and 1/64" is about as low as you go by sight. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do we live in a cause-and-effect universe? are there things that happen for no apparent reason? | is there a 'root cause' to things? if you look at what causes something, and what causes that cause, and so on, will you eventually get to something that couldn't possibly have a cause (barring metaphysical speculation)? sorry if the questions are vague or if they don't make sense, just point it out if that's the case. edit: thanks for all the answers! | you just heard a ping. why? because a ping-shaped pressure wave reached your ear. why? because a bell rang. why? because an electrical circuit closed. why? because your detector detected an electron. why? because a nearby free neutron decayed. why? no damn reason at all. it just did. | 62 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what applications does very high current (1ka+) have? | i noticed a terminal box (or whatever those cabinets full of electricity are called) with a warning label stating a current of about 1.3ka and haven't been able to work out what it would be for. cheers! | if you have multiple devices drawing current at the same time, you have to be able to deliver the sum total of all their currents. if you have a single window air conditioner in your apartment, that's ~5a of current. if you have an apartment building with 50 apartments, that's ~250a of current if they are all on at the same time (which they will be, because people turn on acs when it gets hot). it gets more complicated one you start looking at multiple phases of alternating current, but in the end the short answer is that you need 1.3ka to supply a small neighborhood or a medium-size apartment building. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z_Pulsed_Power_Facility"
] | [
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comment algorithms (xpost askcomputersci) | i have been reading about reddit's 'best' comment sorting algorithm here (_url_0_) and got to thinking; how do sites that don't have a downvote sort comments? or rather, how should they? are there any well-known scoring algorithms that work only using the up-vote? to take the lower-bound of the wilson score interval (_url_1_) you need the measure of total votes. this couldn't be easily replicated with page-hits because that would weight the top-comments that get more actual reads from the same number of hits. it seems like you'd need to calculate the propensity of a user to scroll, how far, and design an algoritm that guessed how many views a comment would be likely to get given a number of hits and its position. this would become very expensive, very quickly. can anybody think of any interesting solutions or factors for consideration? | i'll crosspost my response here, as i think it's an interesting topic that people from beyond cs could weigh in on. --- opinion mining and sentiment analysis includes research into ways to assess the information content, interestingness or relevance of a piece of text, often in relation to another piece. although most of the research is done in the area of extraction, comparison is a similar task i think. you could easily assess the original post and attempt to extract a topic, and then work from there to find posts that are well-spelt and structured, and either oppose or support other posts in the thread. it'd be basic, but it would be a start. | 2 | [] | [
"http://blog.reddit.com/2009/10/reddits-new-comment-sorting-system.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_proportion_confidence_interval#Wilson_score_interval"
] | [] | [
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i was reading about gout in a textbook, and i learned that it is prevalent in humans and larger primates because of an evolutionary loss of the enzyme uricase, which would break down excess uric acid. how exactly is something like this lost by evolution? | title pretty much sums it up. i'm not interested in uricase specifically, more about how a gene would be inactivated/modified/removed because the organism may be better without it i normally consider myself pretty good with genetics and evolution, but i've never really learned this side of it. | it's quite easy for a gene to be lost over time by evolution. mutations that knock out a gene function or expression will persist in a population if those mutants can thrive and compete. i imagine that one of the common ancestors of both humans and apes lost its uricase gene by chance mutation, but none-the-less went on to thrive, out compete in its niche, and breed to make us (yay). that ancestor obviously lived in a setting where uricase activity was not a nessecity. another one of our ancestors must have been eating a lot of fruit because we don't have the ability to synthesize vitamin c. we are one of the few animals that can't make vitamin c. once a gene has been disabled by mutation or is no longer useful, the gene will start to accumulate mutations over time and perhaps disappear all together. i'm curious, do humans have an inactive uricase gene in our dna or has it been snipped out at some point? i'd check but i'm on my phone and its late... | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC349151/"
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how are hazard ratios interpreted? | i am curious about the interpretation of hazard ratios, particularly from this study: _url_0_. i thought it used to be open access, but if it was, it isn't now. their conclusion was that a high intensity of exposure to formaldehyde leads to a much higher risk of als death. it's somewhat confusing because they never address the risk of developing als. my main question is how do you interpret hazard ratios? and why does it look bimodal here, meaning a medium risk leads to lower risk of als death according to the hrs? one group from table 1 is shown below. ________________________________ **table 1** adjusted hrs* and 95% cis for als mortality by level of occupational formaldehyde exposure, national longitudinal mortality study, men ages 25 years and older, 1973–2011 | respondents | person-years | als deaths | hr (95% ci)* |-----------------|---------------|----------------|----------------|--------------- **intensity** | | | unexposed | 607,416 | 9,815,195 | 372 | 1.0 (reference) low | 97,301 | 1,641,068 | 55 | 0.99 (0.74 to 1.30) medium | 86,766 | 1,427,789 | 43 | 0.63 (0.44 to 0.90) high | 3058 | 46,188 | 2 | 1.53 (0.40 to 5.80) | i don't know too much about this, but this seems like a nice explanation: _url_0_ essentially, a hazard ratio is the probability of an event (in this example, als mortality) in some experimental group (respondents exposed to some level of formaldehyde) at a given time, divided by the probability of the same event in a control group (unexposed respondents, who are identified as the reference group). the confidence interval takes the place of a p-value. if the 95% confidence interval includes 1, the hr is not significantly different from 1. in this case, it looks like they found that in the "low" group, there was no heightened risk compared with unexposed. in the "medium" group, i agree that it does look like there's actually a decreased risk compared with unexposed respondents. without seeing the full publication (my institution says it offers free access, but then doesn't--very annoying) i can't confirm that this is what the authors say they found, or see if they suggest any reasons why this might be. it would be interesting to know what types of jobs are captured by this category, and what possible protective factors might be specific to this group. i would not call this bimodal; it looks like the "high' group had relatively too few respondents, and as a result too few als deaths (not that any als deaths are good :-/ ) to draw any conclusion. the confidence interval goes from ..4 to 5.80, meaning that the 1.53 hr is not significantly different from 1.0. this may be way too simplified, but this website breaks hazard ratios down and offers self-quizzes: _url_1_ | 3 | [] | [
"http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/early/2015/06/24/jnnp-2015-310750"
] | [
"www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/.../what_are_haz_ratios.pdf",
"http://www.students4bestevidence.net/a-beginners-guide-to-interpreting-odds-ratios-confidence-intervals-and-p-values-the-nuts-and-bolts-20-minute-tutorial/"
] | [
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crumple zones | can someone explain the physics behind crumple zones in cars using formulas backing them up? | crumple zones spread out momentum transfer over a longer time. the change in momentum imparted on an object during a collision is usually referred to as impulse. in simple terms, impulse is the force applied times the time period in which a force acts. deltap = i = f x deltat so for a given impulse, a longer time will correspond to a lower force applied over time. a rigid body colliding with something will transfer its momentum very quickly. but if you allow something to crumple, it takes longer to transfer the momentum. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
i recently read about a lamp that uses salt water and magnesium & carbon rods to create electricity for its power source. what exactly is going on here? | here is an excerpt from the [press release](_url_0_): > **led lantern powered only by water, salt** > the lantern, "gh-led10wbw," does not require a dry cell or rechargeable battery and emits light when water and salt are put in the lantern. it can continuously generate electricity for eight hours per charge of water. > to use the led lantern, 350ml of saline water containing 16g of salt is made by using a dedicated water bag. when the saline water is put in the lantern, it functions as an electrolyte with a magnesium (mg) rod (negative electrode) and a carbon rod (positive electrode) inside the lantern. and so on... what is the deal here and can this tech be harnessed for other more power intensive uses, or if not, as a way to trickle charge batteries? or is this quite frankly too good to be true? also curious as to whether salt water from the ocean would work if this is possible? thanks! | this thing **is** a battery (this type of battery is called a wet cell), the only difference is that you add an electrolyte instead of having it come in the battery. this particular type of battery wouldn't be very good for high power applications (lithium batteries would be better). sea water should be fine as an electrolyte. | 5 | [] | [
"http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20120904/237751/"
] | [] | [
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could someone explain to me the meaning of this physics equation? including its variables? | here is a picture of the [equation] (_url_0_). and [here](_url_1_) is the link to to the blog where i found this equation. | the blog is being a bit snarky, but it is a condensation of all known physics theory into one equation. the point is that physics is pretty simple. there are "only" ~~four~~three forces to deal with: gravity, electromagnetoweak forces, and strong forces, and it's possible with our powerful compact notation to write them down in one long equation. the "k < \lambda" limit on the integral doesn't make sense to me, since "k" is a wavenumber and \lambda is normally a wavelength - but it's apparently meant to keep you from carrying that integral up to ultra-high energies, where the theory breaks. it's a covariant (i.e. relativistic) integral over four variables: 'g', 'a', '\psi', and '\phi'. the notation is a bit odd since there's a separate integral in the exponent over spacetime, and that doesn't use the 'd' notation but instead "d^4 x", which is more familiar. the greek superscripts and subscripts are meant to represent components of relativistic 4-vectors (i.e. vectors that include a time component as well as three spatial components), with the understanding that any time you see a superscript and matching subscript, you're supposed to sum over the values 0 (time), 1 (x), 2 (y), and 3 (z) for that index. the roman superscripts are meant to index different things and represent "a whole bunch of terms" -- for example, that "a" in the "other forces" section is meant to indicate that there are an unspecified number of terms with that form, for multiple force laws that have the same symmetry properties as the electromagnetic force law. each force would be labeled with a value of "a", and without saying what the index represents, it's equivalent to saying "zero or more things that act sort of like the electromagnetic force but aren't necessarily that". yes, it is that vague. this is very dense notation that is designed so that theoretical physicists can manipulate it -- but without explanation it's just so much mumbo-jumbo. sort of like those mit tee-shirts that contain maxwell's equations (usually in the impressive-looking-but-awkward-to-use integral form, and sometimes with typos), followed by the expression ".. and then there was light!". the formula is a general-purpose formula for calculating a quantum-mechanical amplitude (loosely, the square root of a probability) that a particular system will shift from one state to another, given a whole bunch of other information about physical fields that might be interacting with it. but, again, you can't do anything with it unless you specify a whole bunch of other stuff about the fields themselves -- and then carry out the integrals, which is where most peoples' foreheads get bloody from hitting the wall... | 8 | [] | [
"http://www.preposterousuniverse.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Everyday-Equation-1024x353.jpg",
"http://www.preposterousuniverse.com/blog/2013/01/04/the-world-of-everyday-experience-in-one-equation/"
] | [] | [
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what human beings have traveled the farthest? | cumulatively in their lifetime relative to the earth. i suspect it is either astronauts who have spent time on the iss, or airline pilots. | average speed during that time ~28,000 km/h. total distance traveled ~540,000,000 km. ----- average speed of commercial jet ~800km/h. to match distance of 540million km ~675,000h=75 years. ----- so it would be the orbit guy. unless there has been a person who has been constantly in flight on a jet for 75 straight years... edit: i see you asked about in general not the specific person. to compare speeds (28,000/800=35). so, the rest of their activities being negligible, a pilot would have to spend 35x more time in flight than an astronaut in orbit for their distance traveled to be equal. i do not know the average hours logged in flight by the average pilot nor the average hours logged in orbit by the average astronaut. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how did the oxygen evolving complex of psii come to be in its present form? | i am referring specifically to [this](_url_0_) ligand as described in the pdb. were there stages in the structure that we know of before this, admittedly, complex structure as we know today became what it is? | we don't fully know what the structure is _right now_, x-ray crystallography has bad resolution of the site because of the high and relatively uniform electron density caused by having so many metal atoms in close proximity. (note for instance the structure shown [at wikipedia](_url_0_) is markedly different from [the one in the article](_url_2_) related to that pdb structure. as far as i've heard, there are no known predecessors. it's something that only evolved once - all organisms with psii have the same complex. it also happened quite early on in evolutionary history, about 2.5 billion years ago. if there are any living things that retain some earlier 'version' of the site, i don't think they've been found. that said, the general shape isn't completely unheard of. it's rather similar to the 4fe-4s clusters in some [iron-sulfur proteins](_url_1_). | 19 | [] | [
"http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/ligand/ligandsummary.do?hetId=OEX&sid=3ARC"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Manganese_cluster.svg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron-sulfur_protein",
"http://i.imgur.com/Xcc27bu.png"
] | [
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whats the most efficient way to use two different insulation materials with different r-values. should the material with the higher r-value be used closer to the heat source? | when winter camping many people like to stack two sleeping pads on top of each other. normally, these pads have different r-values, one is usually inflatable with a high r-value, the other is made from closed cell foam and has a lower r-value. almost everyone agrees, the ccf sleeping pad should go below the inflatable. other than protecting the inflatable from punctures, is there any science that explains why this way would be warmer? | technically, there is no difference in the ordering of pure r materials. the r's add up. the air mattress will support internal convection which changes its behavior over temperature, but i'm pretty sure you can just dial that in to the effective r factor for camping purposes. however there are practical matters, particularly vapor management: permeability of the material for water vapor, where the dew point will be should be considered since that's where the vapor will condense and things will get wet. you want to make sure you stack insulating materials and vapor-impermeable layers such that vapor is blocked before it reaches the dew point (the temperature falls from body temp through all layers until it reaches ground temp. somewhere in there it will go below the dew point of your vapor-producing body). that's why the vapor barrier in on the interior side of homes, for instance. so i think technically r factor isn't the big deal - it is mechanical properties (comfort/protection of materials) and where condensation would occur if vapor is present at that layer. | 44 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it just an amazing coincidence that there are exactly two equinoxes per year? | or is there some rotational/tidal resonances occurring? | no, it's due to the fact that earth's axis of rotation is at an angle with respect to its angle of orbit. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is real world example of a fourth order control system? | in my mechatronics class, we're going over some basic control systems and we were given examples of first, second, and third order control systems. we were told that a cruise control is a good first order example, a spring-mass damper is a good second, and a pid controller is an example of a third order control system. are there any real world examples of a fourth order control system? or any system for that matter? side note: our final project is a line follower, for which i have implemented a pretty successful pid controller. would it be improved by adding higher orders of control? (ie second derivative, second integral etc.) | i didn't know off-hand of any applications but a quick google search found that it is frequently of concern in robotics and mechatronics with respect to motion and vibration control. conceptually, if you have mass-spring-damper (or even just mass-spring) systems connected to each other in series, you will end up with higher order equations to work with. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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